Political economy

State and development

 Any state? For any development? ..

A lot of the State or a few of them? .. The difference between the Liberals and Social Democrats did not stop after the liquefaction of ink, and the urgency is to think of another model of development Bgaah put an end to the exclusion of a greater number of members of the community. .

Ignace SAC

By Ignace SAC *

For: Alternative Economic , number Estnaúa, No. 35.

End of the century in the midst of a scandal Development reneged on its promise. He knew the world production, carried on the back of the D-strong technological innovations since the half-century, higher growth of population increase, and the level to which this development would be allowed, more easily, to ensure the terms and conditions of a reasonable life for each inhabitant of the land if the circumstances of sharing and fair conditions. However, the development, the opposite, unfortunately, is under Allaadl and availability.

It has been estimated that about one billion of static earth live in affluence live unprecedented, and that the next billion people mired in a cycle of poverty and violence finds rich difficult to imagine or even imaginable, the rest; ie around 4 billion people living below the threshold of poverty. But if the gap to separate the north from the south, the rich countries on poor countries, the line of division between north and south, runs through all societies: in the south, north, there are few who are rich Hollywood live in affluence, but also, and more and more, there is the South in the North : is the Mgosaiana, Atlina, and our poor new number in the millions; system is no longer never need them.

In 1945 Mr. J. wrote. Q. Kumaraaa, one of Gandhi's disciples, saying: "We must approach our work is in the distribution of wealth through the process of production of wealth. And if they are not associated with the production or distribution of Atzkhala together not careful, they often lead to the accumulation of wealth in the hand, and the accumulation of poverty and destitution in the other. "Then he adds:" We can not be measured by the number of indispensable nation of millionaires in this country "(1).

Since then, he has been uttering these words better than words. We must make the distribution of incomes and jobs the crossing points to the development strategy is more likely that we consider products of the process-centered development and increasing profits. It was Mr. Horst Mahler, former Director General of the World Organization of Health ( OMS ), the right to protest to give priority to economic affairs, and running frantic and Allamillot for profit without giving any importance to the cost of humanity for this: "If Qimitm success on the base of the economy pure and solid and alone, YOU NEED permission to kill the elderly and vulnerable and the infirm. Get rid of Albatolojia social death victims!. "

The appropriate correction, too late, by re-distribution of part of the income, which is necessary to take account remains, however, will not be enough to restore balance to the pattern. Not about the here and do not deny the importance of the role of social safety nets. However, no matter how long the lack of correct re-built the initial distribution pattern of production, the assistance of Almgosaian Almtcather number n over time will not be the only pursuant Sazivia real. The paradox of democratic socialism have not worked really convincingly only under conditions of rapid growth and fully operational, however, that these conditions are no longer sufficient at all, and there are chances the least that the upright position in the foreseeable future, except if the engagement entirely in the search for ways and new forms of development .

We are witnessing the consumption and exhaustion of the models that worked in half a century, and is not certain at all that the market economy version of the neo-liberal solve problems. It is enough to look around us to make sure that the tyrant of markets can only exacerbate the current processes of development and deepening distorted. Bembaadtna between the parties; any economy demand that Aatash, and the pure market economy, which is not only utopian in the sense of the word, we must think quickly and rush to the various possible forms of democratic organization of the mixed economies that are still alone is possible whatever the circumstances.

These regulations are embodied through various combinations of public and private, state and contracting and the third sector of civil society on the regular goals and objectives of public interest. As for the right of Mr. Eric Toniepaun: "Whatever it was possible to have the desired balance between the public and private, between state and civil society, between government and the market, there is no one can challenge seriously and should be writing in them" ( 2).

Mixed development space to expand democracy

Not a matter of certainty Mounavhh Davlatah tendency for exaggerated and often you find a corrupt translation, in fact the privatization of state established in the interests of privacy. But now have the same banishment simplistic idea of reform simply passes through as little as possible of state intervention, if not through the dismantled and erased as neo-liberals want to top locations. We need more than ever to seek state Mnumeih towards the twin goals of full employment and equitable distribution of wealth in a holistic framework of respect for ecological constraints, and therefore entitled to the elaboration of a development strategy based on a national program Mnhuth democratically.

Should look like this country the same is now able to impose control effectively for markets and securing the production of public services in the best of circumstances, these services are funded by the tax was fixed system (that is distributed fairly, but it is curtailed to the maximum beloved neo-liberals). Bserna and in the way, should not make mistakes Objective: It is not through the privatization of public enterprises (which have to assess the usefulness of the institution a case by case) we can reach out to state the case of privatization.

The struggle against the new trend of ownership is not disconnected from the democratization of political systems. Must resist the authoritarian tendency induced by the strong growth in some countries with democratic regimes antibody. Democracy is a fundamental value in the light of the tragic experiences of the totalitarian regimes that have flooded this century in the blood. More than that, in the heart of the concept of development itself, we can express the limits of the actual ownership of all human rights by all people: political rights, civil, but also economic, social and cultural. Thus, we identify them, the development mix and interfere with the expansion of democratic space.

In this context must be examined in the Salt articulation between different levels: (Almistoyaloutna, regional, and local). What are the challenges and the limits of decentralization? .. Any form can be diagnosed Atkhaddh transition of power or hold it by the base? .. How can the state to re-balance the disparities in wealth between the parties? .. The fate of all solutions is simplistic excretion. The utopian anarchism for the new idea of a confederation between the local communities do not have a self-centered sense of the components in the world of more and more significant correlation between them. The concept of subsidy unblemished ambiguity is clear: it decides on what is a stop at the local level? ..

And all a priori, the relationships between the different levels of authority require the renegotiation of social contracts. The future belongs to the conduct of contractual and negotiated, and the total resources of the public interest, and a new partnership between the three major groups of social actors referred to above: public authorities, businesses, civil society organizer. To insist again on the central focus of democracy.

Rethinking the global system

Role of the state is still the most powerful sign at the intersection of the national space with the space of cross-homelands. Unlike the recent literature continue to live (happily) in a world of nation-states is responsible for protecting the interests of its citizens. The more underwent the global economy of the actions is commendable for contracting transnational and actors in the financial markets who escape from any control or monitoring, the greater the responsibilities of the States: where they become required to address the important dual of suppression of the negative effects of globalization and seize the opportunities they provide. The defensive strategy poses more complex problems and are forced to rethink the tools and methods that are still available, given the commitments taken at the global level for the benefit of editing.

In parallel, however, must be re-thinking in the global system is increasingly likely to outweigh the Bretton Woods institutions ( World Bank , IMF, international) as well as the World Trade Organization at the expense of the United Nations system. The latter, and without that we make about the effectiveness of the current more fantasies, needs to strengthen and consolidate and re-direct it to the core functions of maintaining peace and revitalize development. Must be interpreted the failure of negotiations conducted in the past Bgaah establish new world economic order as if it were urged to seek new solutions to the problems of acute and complicated more and more: It is the absence of effective regulation of financial markets and commodity markets and diminishing the growing scandal to help the world for the benefit of the weaker development, and the absence of automatic funding for the UN system, to name a few. .

Whenever we succeeded in organizing the global economy and create Mikanezmat for cooperation between countries Almnumeih, the more easier task within each country separately. As should be expected, the issues concerning the role of the state in development has been conducted and in contact with all United Nations conferences without these issues never find the central place it deserves. After the failure of three decades of development, the United Nations chose sectoral approaches, it is certainly less ambitious but less prone to controversy. The weak central operative in the bosom of the World Organization for thinking about development in its entirety is contrary to widen it by collecting agencies and sectoral programs.

Is it wisdom, or fear, opportunism and besieged by the current and the powerful? .. The time has come to confront the problems of development out of the false or tattered. The conference, prepared by La Cnuced (3) for the year 2000 can provide an opportunity that provided a stronger and greater mobilization of the regional committees and the wider open space and welcome to the participation of organizations of citizens.

===========================

Margins:

(1) By some estimates, have been counted 600 billionaires in the world enjoy incomes equal to the incomes of the poorest half of the people, or nearly 3 billion people.

(2) and. C. Hobspaun: "The future of the state," the development and exchange, July 1996.

(3) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development .

Anatomy of failure

 

We have renewed approach Arthur Lewis of the problems of economic and social development theory in search of a balance between market and public intervention.

• By: Gilles de Stalr
• For: Economic Alternative number 254.
• 
  

  Arthur Lewis
  When he was born Arthur Lewis in 1915 was the small island of St. Lucy in the Antilles, a British colony, has obtained its independence in 1979. The island where he died Barbad Louis has got its independence in 1966. The static these two islands, Kogelbah Antilles, in the vast majority of them are descendants of slaves who formed the subject of trade between the three countries in Europe, Africa and the Antilles. Has been the abolition of slavery in England in 1833, but the British colonies did not turn out, however, parks and rosy for the blacks.

• It was Arthur Louis students genius, have left school when he was 14 years of age to work in public administration, because it was ahead of his peers, and age were not allowed to enter the university. And in 1932 when he received a scholarship to continue his studies in England, he wished to become an engineer, but the positions allocated to this specialization was closed and forbidden to blacks, whether in public or private sector, and this prompted him to study Altjarhqubl to turn to study economics.
• . I have known Louis himself being anti-imperialist and socialist democracy, he recalls a meeting of the Association of Local Marcus Karfi if his father took him to when he was age 7 years. When a solution to Lewis in London engaged in the study of colonial practices of Great Britain and mixer legal community, the cradle of the Labour Party intellectuals, and the release of the first books under the banner of the party. The Louis, a student and then professor at the London School of Economics, and he ran the Department of Economics Frederick Hayek, then, did not share the dominant ideology of laissez-faire doctrines then
• That his opposition to imperialism, wrote to Lewis, that led him to embark on the issue of development, having toured in the paths of industrial economics and economic history, which led him, without doubt, to divide his time between teaching and research on the one hand, and his work as a consultant and administrative, on the other . The Lewis did not stop already circling the countries named then-third-world countries pointing and adviser to governments and managers of financial institutions within the framework of his work at the United Nations, along with a basic interest and the chief has is the question of how to interpret and erase the differences in development and poverty caused by it, and that remains , of course, one of the major problems facing humanity, and is working hard to solve.

Underdevelopment and the dual economy

• I punched Lewis early, when he was a student the first cycle, raises questions about the evolution of comparative prices of industrial products and the prices of agricultural products exported by underdeveloped countries; fluctuations important and unexpected price export products in his island of origin, for example, they prevent the management of the economy by trying to achieve the stability of a given. Was convinced then that the traditional theory of prices, such an institution on the marginal analysis of supply and demand, does not help the fuse in the understanding of these phenomena. The model Hekshar and Helen, a modern version of the theory of comparative advantage to Ricardo, do not allow for the interpretation of international economic exchanges are satisfactory and satisfying answer to the Galil.
• During the wandering of a day of the month of August 1952, in the streets of Bangkok, came to intuition, which would make him write and publish in 1954, one of the texts cited more than others in the second half of the twentieth century, Vfahm way the functioning of economies Almnauth backward, we must abandon the hypothesis neo-classical that the fixed amount of work, and return to the classical tradition from Smith to Marx, and thanks to whom he offered the job offer is not paid subsistence finite and has no boundaries. There is the economic growth comes from the accumulation of capital specified by the distribution of income: "The regulations define this classic is now in the same income distribution and growth, while the prices for goods, constitute the issue of less importance."
• The third world countries marked duality makes it spread among urban factory capitalist sector, the sector of traditional subsistence farmers and primarily, but we find also in the urban activities is structured. The productivity in the latter is very modest, as is the standard of living, demographic growth and its very high, as is the under-employment and unemployment, and workers are the points of convergence between these two sectors Monday. The sector capital is already available on the exhibition of the work is limited paid a fixed contour, and this provides him with a profit result in re-employment and investment to the high rates of growth, and this is what explains the growth boom in England at the end of the 18th century and the mid-19th century, a growth that is expected to you know, according to Lewis, the new industrialized countries from the sixties.
• . That a similar analysis applies to the development of border trade between Almanavactorah products exported by rich countries and agricultural products exported by poor countries; exports have the latter constitute only a proportion of weak, less than 20% of the production of agricultural productivity with very weak. The unlimited supply of tropical products, the impact of demand makes little impact on prices, and thus the limits of trade-offs for the benefit of developed industrialized countries

Development and Planning

• The new book by Louis allocated in 1955 to the theory of development of this topic, and unleashed a number of discussions and differences in views similar to that caused by the book in 1954, the title of the book "Theory of Economic Growth" is the title deceptive, as long as it is not with the study of models of abstract and mathematical of the growth was then developed by both economists before Keynes or neo-classical. The Lewis is convinced that the solution to economic problems residing in institutions change more than residing in the price change, and in any case, it is not liberalization of international trade is what will be an engine for the growth of underdeveloped countries. The part of the solution resides in the planning, a topic which was published around a Lewis wrote in 1949, which will return to the theme of the year 1966, and resides in the search for a fair balance between the market and activity of public authorities.
• The economy does not occupy all the attention and thinking Louis; political dimension plays an essential and pivotal role. The authoritarianism and dictatorship deployed Third World constitute another obstacle to development, and education, who are dedicated to Louis many of his writings with his job in the same job now is to measure important academic, can also play a key and pivotal role. Here also criticizes the analysis and evaluation of education up to the cost and price, investment and cost-effective financial; it does not have to adapt education and fit with the market; is on the contrary, one of the most powerful means of changing society, and thinking in education rise from the philosophy rather than rise from the economy.
• The approach of Lewis to the problems of economic and social relocating outside of the mainstream dominant in the economy now, and it was inspirational to a number of writers such as the Emirates of age, developed a model of dual economy, or Albert Hirschman, who borrowed his arguments in favor of a policy of industrialization and protectionism. Analysis has been applied to trend up or trend of bilateral duplication of the job market in developed countries by Peter Doringer and Michel Pure, for example.

• Westernization of the world's mirage

   Not for development that is often presented as if they were the perfect solution for all problems of the South only to alienate the other side of the world. Whether this development, "sustainable" or are "Time" or "internal", they fall always, violently relatively, under the logic of destruction associated with the accumulation of capitalist; it mean differences and the destruction of the environment and cultures, while it is possible to imagine other solutions that take into account the diversity of societies and different solutions, is based on the experiences of economic non-commercial practice has been here or there in different parts of the world.

  Westernization of the world's mirage
  By: Serge Latouche
  For: Le Monde Diplomatique, the number of May 2001
  Final salvation of so-called development
  "Like" development "to a large extent a dead star still see its luster even went out for a long time too, and forever"
  Gilbert Rist ⁽¹⁾
  
  

  Serge Latouche

  Thirty years have passed since the birth of new hope, hope for the peoples of the

  Third World is the same greatness of hope, which was formed for the socialist proletarians Western countries, is the hope of perhaps questionable in view of the great assets and founded, as long as the white man has carried with him before leaving the countries that had already colonized violently. However, the officials and rulers and elites newly independent countries came to the development of their people in the latter as if they had the perfect solution for all problems.
  I have installed the young nations horseback adventure loosely perhaps, but nonetheless tried, and often violent and desperate effort. The project was "Development" is the only legitimacy announced that the elites are in power. Sure we can Nmag to no end to see whether or were not the objective conditions for the success of adventurous modernist yet available, and without that we open this file is huge, everyone will recognize that these conditions were not at all conducive not only to development based on planning and not for the development of a liberal.
  It was the authorities of the new states of the newly independent reality in the clutches of contradictions does not solve it; was not able not to spark development and not on the building, and there were not able not to reject the adoption or Alanjah to process Ii all contribute in the update: Education Medicine the technical department of justice. The "brake" and "obstacles" and "few cases" of each color, which is the beloved of economists, has made ​​the success of the project, which involves engaging in the global competition in the era of "globalization greatest" success has only a little credibility.
  Development is a viable theory of reproduction is not universal and does not accept to be so, first, for reasons of ecology: the limitations of the globe make the mainstream American way of life impossible and explosive.
  The concept of development itself is located in embarrassment, or proof of a double-edged: it either refers to everything and its opposite, and in particular the total historical experiences of a dynamic culture in human history, the experiences of historical empire of China to the empire of the Incas, and that there would be no meaning glory to revive and activate a policy , but need to be disposed of, or to have specific content, which are set then necessarily holdings in common with the Western experience to "take off" the economy has also been developed since the Industrial Revolution in England between 1750 and 1800, and in this case, Vkifma was adjective which Nlsqh by the implicit or explicit content is in the economic development and the accumulation of capital with all the positive and negative, which we knew and we know it.
  However, this hard core, which is the common denominator between the different development situations, and this experience is linked to "values" is in progress and the cosmic and control over nature, and rationality as well as quantity. These values, in particular the value of progress, do not match at all with the aspirations of cosmic deep. These values ​​are linked on the West and have only the echo of a faint in the other communities (2): Communities biotechnology, for example, does not share the Western belief of control over nature; idea of development is the idea of a vicious full of meaning, and practices associated practices are impossible to strictly think of and put in place to which it is forbidden and what can not be thinking about it (3). These Western values ​​is precisely what must be put into question in order to find a solution to the problems of the contemporary world and avoid the disasters that the world economy leads us towards it.
  It was a major development patriarchal movement ("the rich countries to ensure the fate and the fate of the less developed countries"), which covered almost the "thirties victorious" (1975-1945). It is coupled Baltaadih all this is over to the bankruptcy, and evidence for that is that the specific assistance in the 1% of gross domestic product PIB of the countries of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OCDE) during the first decade of development to the United Nations in 1960, which was reduced to% 0.70 years Rio 1992, and 1995 in Copenhagen did not reach the limits of 0.25% in 2000! (4). As further evidence is also the fact that most studies institutes or research centers have closed or are in agony.
  The crisis of economic theory, development declared the year 1980 are in the final moments: we are in the presence of the liquidation of real! The development raises no longer anyone in the world forums "serious": FMI International Monetary Fund, World Bank and the World Trade Organization OMC. . . Etc., but are not even refer to this "issue" in Davos last. It is also the question is not claimed in the south only by some of the victims and their followers loyal: Any non-governmental organizations ONG that eke out of them (5), and the new generation of "non-governmental organizations without borders" axis also "trade charity" very knowledgeable about humanitarian affairs and the immediate intervention rather than centered on the economic take-off.
  Furthermore, the development has been the victim of bankruptcy, which does not accept the argument of the south are less successful in the North. This "withdrawal" conceptual (conceptual) corresponds to the transformation resulting from "globalization" and what is going on behind the deceptive slogan. It was expected to be completed development of national economies, and almost automatically, making the transnational economies and markets to make inclusive.
  Does not exist in a globalized economy anywhere for a theory of the south; All areas and parts of the world is the day "developing" (6), and compared to one world there is the thought and one Oouhd, and the bet change is not only the disappearance of what gives the myth development are some of cohesion, that is, Trickle down effect of any phenomenon of positive effects on everyone.
  
  
  We have lived this experience in all its dimensions in France itself, any development experience "alternative"; were represented in the modernization of agriculture in the years between 1945 and 1980, and has been programmed by technocrats with humanism and implemented by the NGO Christian, which is twinned with non-governmental organizations that is sweeping the Third World countries (10). We have seen the focus and operations automation and manufacturing Balboada, as well as burdening farmers with debt and total use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers and dissemination of low-lying feeding. . .
  Whether or not we did not respond to development can be different for different Kanth and what is the same: any process of Westernization of the world. The words rooted in history, it is linked to Pettmtlat instincts often from the grip of awareness among users, but in control of our emotions. There are nice words, the words of a source of happiness, and there are words offensive, there are words to make an entire people in a rampage and overwhelm the world, then there are words toxic, whenever T seep into the blood as an anesthetic D rug desire and confusion on the Queen of governance, and the word development is one of those words toxic. That could certainly announce that since the day that the "sound development is first and foremost that he has made ​​in enriching the parents, that is, you roots (11)" any definition of the word Bnqeidaha. The development has been always will be, which is first and foremost a process of uprooting the roots, it has caused everywhere deepening of dependence and subordination to others at the expense of the autonomy of the communities.
  Do I have to wait another forty years to even pay attention to that development is already in development? .. There is something else other. The existing development is economic war (with the victors, of course, but more with the defeated them as well), is the depletion of the borderless nature, is the alienation of the world and make the ball land on one style, and finally the destruction of all cultures is a difference.
  This is why the " sustainable development ", that this contradiction in terms, is now in the same terrible and conducive to despair and hopelessness! We could have lost at least with the development is likely to have hope that this process be fatal end, and be a victim of its own contradictions and Kpoadtha and nature that can not be due to depletion of natural resources. . .
  So we can think and work for the post-development, and to make post-modernity are of acceptance. Particularly regarding the rehabilitation of social and political relations of economic exchange, the goal of redefining the public interest and a decent life in the social commerce, because the "sustainable development" to deprive us of any horizon out of them, because they promise to development forever.
  Can not take the alternative formula single model; onward development is necessarily pluralistic; It's about searching for patterns and forms of collective prosperity will not be given priority to the material prosperity devastating to the environment and social fabric. The goal of a decent living to take pictures and many variations according to contexts.
  In other words, it's about re-building new cultures, and can call this goal to construction (prosperity), as is the case with Ibn Khaldun or swadeshi - sarvodaya (improve social conditions for all) as is the case with Gandhi, or bamtaare (to be together in the best case ) as is the case with the Altokolor. . . What is important is that this means a break with the machine of destruction that will endure and continue under the name of development or the name of globalization. And can not be that it comes with Almgosaian and people affected by development, but the type of installation in between tradition and modernity lacking penetration and unmanageable. These original creations that can stand here or there at the beginnings of her and begin the process of completion in the development of the gates of hope can we consider the post-development.
  --------------------------
  1) Gilbert Rist, "Development, History of Western belief" Press Political Science, Paris, 1996, p. 377.
  (2 Read Jean-Marc Ela, "tracks the African Renaissance" Manyar de Ivoire No. 51, Africa Rising, May June 2000.
  (3 on this subject see in particular Gilbert Rist, Ibid.
  (4 Read Jean-Pierre Cot, "French cooperation in the case of failure," Le Monde Diplomatique, January 2001.
  (5 "I have finished the word development, he said Bertrand Kabdoh in the conclusion of his book (Christians Third World) [Karthala, Paris 1990, p. 255] losing its attractiveness due to many failed experiments, but it remains the only expression shared by all human beings to express their hopes ".
  (6 It was on the economy, social development is to solve since then replaced the normal economics, but the opposite happened, although some of the vibrations in this direction.
  (7 Bernard Horace, "humanistic ideology or altruism ceremony Lost", Harmatan, Paris, 1998.
  (8 in the words of Mark Bonsula, "Utopia after the triple world" Harmatan, Paris, 1994.
  (9 is not the word development in many African countries in return for any local language, in the absence of the great Mkhial which established the issue.
  (10 Gorneg Read Powell, "Journey to the heart of FNSEA" of Le Monde Diplomatique, January 2001.
  (11 Aledo Sawadogo, is mentioned by Pierre Pradervand, "Une Afrique en marche", color, Paris, 1989, p. 109.
   

Archeology

Assets of Culture

 How was the mental and intellectual capacity of early humans? .. And when the birth language? .. What distinguishes Homo sapiens Homo Sapiens from animals to other high? .. Has become possible today, thanks to many of us of recent research, draw several scenarios for the emergence of the issue of culture and the emergence of human beings.

By: Francois Dortie

For: Journal of Humanities 105

" Why I ate my father ? "Is the title of a novel by Roy Lewis are the facts of a few hundreds of thousands of years, ie, in the heart of pre-history. In the novel, we find Edward; a man of the stage Albaleguelaticah busy discovering new techniques and a fighter for progress under the eyes of his family and Almenbhrh skeptical. When he tried to adapt the fire and used in the House warned his brother Vania, a Pithécanthrope monkey humane conservative and reactionary, who did it. That there is a difference deeply the connection between the two men; Vaduard refers to the benefits of fire multiple: that we can cook the meat, and Nstdfi at the time of cold , and to expel the mosquitoes and defend ourselves against wild beasts. The Vania presents the risk of fire: Kaharouk, especially the greatest danger of burning the forest to the ground, and the desire to tame the fire, he says, warning "means a teacher playing the role of magic. Let's be realistic, and we have just carved stones. " He steps in front of the progress of the rapid humanization of defending the basic slogan "Let us return to the forest and the trees."

And an answer to his children Almshidohen and those who ask him why we not only carved stones for different land use, and why we must always learn to invent and innovate and move forward, and that Nrom progress in the framework of humanism, he would Edward in one of the days and words voiced: "Wait. . And see. "

The book by R.. Lewis comes an answer comic mystery of great scientific, is the mystery of human origins: when and how and why they started one of the animals higher in the forests of Africa, he thinks and invent tools and language, and art, religions and social laws, and turned it into a special kind of organisms? .. And has become possible thanks to the archaeological archives: the bones of fossilized stone tools carved houses of the effects of landfill fees on the rocks, and the accuracy of dates, which has become increasing day by day, re-shaping and building the main lines of Genialoya humanism, but these data do not much enlightenment about the mental capacity the prehistoric people, their culture and how it was Tmtlathm? .. Why, for example, there is a gap c for at least two million years, among the first tools on the one hand, and the first effects of art on the other? .. And when it appeared the language and symbolic thinking? ..

New fields of research in the fields of Alerkyuloggio mental and evolutionary psychology and neuroscience and Alaatolojia, all of which enabled the formulation of scenarios for Bnchah and the emergence of culture in human history.

Africa is a human being from the old Australopithèque? ..

Australopithecus afarensis

The facts of what took place and before the date of the humanitarian outlined in three moments: at the point of view, there are human values, or monkey Africa South Australopithècus a variety of large apes that walk on two legs and had lived in Africa between 4 to 1 million years. Moment, opened the second class human named Homo, which appeared in more than two million years. The brain knew this last great development (doubling its size 3 times during the 1.5 million years old) and engaged in the manufacture of tools.

Finally came the named product Homo sapiens Homo Sapiens since 150 thousand years ago, and with it will happen since 4 thousand years the emergence of a real explosion of cultural clothing, art, tombs and sacred rites. . . But we must understand what happened so well that we start the story from the beginning.

Young "Lucy" in the perception of another

Skull of the child "Tong"

Australopithecus afarensis

Homo habilis

Human rectum cod

Carved stone tools

Homo sapiens and Alaniantrdal

Historical development of the class of human beings Homonidés

Map locations discoveries

Famous rock cave drawings

Alkromaon

It started then, history class humanitarian Les Hominidés Africa since 5 million years, due to the emergence of human African old Australopithèque, and we condemn the discovery to the world of prehistoric Raymond took place (1893 1988) who discovered Africa South in 1924 fossilized child appeared to be very distinct; has The skull of "child Tong" take their properties in the same animals are now higher and humans, have appeared to be a "missing link" between human ancestors and the ancestors

Skull of the child "Tong"

Great apes, has launched a t. Took place on this creature name Australopithècus.

However, the history and lifestyle of ancient African people did not begin to identify them based on the fact that only years of the sixties by the excavation campaigns carried out by a couple of wiki in the Great Lakes region in east Africa. Was the discovery of "Lucy" in 1974 by a team Kubi Ives and John Morris and a good dog and Donald Johnson, and finally through Althiinat of recent new species of human being with all the old Africa of South Africa, Chad and Ethiopia since the mid-nineties.

Outwardly from the outside look of these objects similar to great apes, and the size of the skull of the class of human African old named Australopithècus afarensis (such as Lucy) is 400 cm 3 (the largest barely skull chimpanzees), but the composition of different for the composition of the skull of chimpanzees; Valthagb occipital at the back of the head ( where it passes the spinal cord) is open towards the bottom, which is an indicator of walking upright (on two legs), about 1.40 meters tall for males and 1.15 m in females and this sexual dimorphism (physical differences between large male and female) are as well as This important indicator of sexual habits. Indeed, it has a great ape Kalgurela or monkey Hamadreass link between the two nationality strong and practices of the harem; Males engage in combat, and the strongest among them is the one who holds a group of females, and in return, or vice versa, this binary is less prominent and visible to the species, the only female Kelchibon Gibbons or with species that have prevailed for some kind of sexual promiscuity Kqirdh chimpanzees.

Young "Lucy" in the perception of another

Africa is believed that ancient people lived, Kalqirdh high current in small groups consisting of several dozens of individuals who occupy a certain area, the more likely they left the tropical forests to live in savannah woodlands in the vicinity of lakes and rivers. The distribution of their diet between picking fruits and plants, and hunting of small mammals in some cases. But, on the question, What about their mental? .. It is unacceptable today likened to the capabilities of mind in chimpanzees; has a both a common ancestor who lived in 5 or 7 million years, ie, at the very least, a million years before the appearance of the old people of Africa Australopithècus.

He was a specialist known in animals Supreme Jane Goodall of the first who by observing chimpanzees in the middle of a natural jungle Tanzanian, and then the world of prehistoric Louis Leakey was the one who encouraged him to do his research so that we can better understand what it was the lifestyle of human African old .. We know today, thanks to the c. Goodall and all the teams that followed, that chimpanzees possess a form of intelligence technical; they are made with a family of tree trunks before going to sleep, and use some sticks, small to catch ants inside their homes, and break the balls cuckoo stones used one Xandan and the other like a hammer, and the addition has proved Frederick Julian, a specialist in the culture of chimpanzees, the presence of a real factor to break the nuclei of the cuckoo chimpanzees, since there are some 150 or 200 years. Indeed, the nucleus Feltxeir Coco by a stone, it must first be able to do so technical, they break down when it receives a violent blow, but the hit on the land leads to wet Ghosha in the ground. (1). . . It seems that the adult female chimpanzees teach their young how to do this, and these do not succeed in this alone but after a certain time.

Map locations discoveries

A recent study published in the journal "Nature" show up on a tradition of local cultural in this type of ape: the way to invoke Chambaei Tanzania to catch ants differ from the way in which resorted to Chambaei Ivory Coast and Uganda, and everything is reason to believe that these traditions were acquired by learning and transfer from generation to generation. Social intelligence also advanced to the chimpanzees, they are as animals, a strategy able to practice deception and fraud, for example, Tarif launch a cry of warning to divert the attention of the group and grab the food easily. Finally, we know they are available on the representations and perceptions mentality (the region dirt) and awareness of self, it is able the formation of symbols to express them for things or actions. (2) The sum of these observations confirms that the chimpanzees, as is the case with most mammals, is not only acting out of instincts; as part of its behavior is acquired through play, experiment and simulation; Vsgar chimpanzees discover rules of the game of social and also learn how to feed and how to make Srsr sleep in trees, and the period of "youth" that precedes the coming of age in these monkeys a third of the Age: 10 years ago is the addition of a sign on the length of the learning and acquisition of these the monkeys. In the end, Valqird not born a monkey, but becomes as well. . . This is without doubt also applies to Africa, the old man Australopithècus.

Historical development of the class of human beings Homonidés

Stages of product development of human millions of years

So you can talk about the "culture" of great apes and man the old Africa Australopithècus? .. If we mean that the presence of learning and practical experience and acquired social behaviors and movable within the confines of the group, the answer clearly is yes.

Does this lead us to recognize that there are no differences between the old man Africa and the people existing only in terms of class? .. However, this is not the conclusion, which ends most of the specialists; Vahambanza Africa as a human being old used some of the very few tools but they do not Asnaanha. Attempts made to teach chimpanzees how to make stone tools are all doomed to failure. Also, attempts to make them learn the language of signs and signals are also shown their limitations. The chimpanzees can learn 200 words and use them well, and can be mounted in two words (and rarely three) to formulate a request, but could not never, ever override these initial installations and formulate true statements. It's interesting that the attention is that they use always this embryo the language in the context of a request very specific ("Washoe Lebanon") or an answer to a question, (When you ask him the color of something, can Oacho to answer, saying "blue ball"), which is not used at all to put questions or make observations of spontaneous or even cut some of the stories (3). Finally, as pointed out by the American Anthropological because Tatteresal, director of the Museum of Natural History in New York, we're not into its own on the behavior of chimpanzees refers to the completion of activities that fall under the "projects" in the long term (4). So there is a gap between the intelligence of the old man Africa (compared to the intelligence of chimpanzees) and Homo human intelligence product which will be appearing, in turn, is also the land of Africa.

Rights and tool-making Homo

Homo habilis

The first models of this type named Homo known appearance in Africa since the two million years, and if they have been reduced recently in two basic types with great: Homo habilis Homo Habilis and human rectum cod Homo Erectus, the family of Homo that preceded Homo sapiens Homo sapiens has been complicated in recent years by the discovery of a whole group of new species (Homo Rudolfensis and Homo Ergaster and Homo Heidelbergensis and Homo Antecessor

Human rectum cod

.

Carved stone tools

And to understand what could be in this culture Almimah, to imagine two people, ignorant of each and every one of them all about the language of the other and tries to communicate with him, let him understand each other resort to the expression Memia for the acts and healthy youth that would like to express them, which is to say the word "eating "He can raise his hand to his mouth, and talk about the birds can be expressed Memia movements on the wings of the bird is Mimi, and to regulate fishing, you can do to play a scene of fishing and the like.

Homo sapiens and Neanderthals

Did the class of human beings have a specific language? ..

This M requires a special form of representation, it is possible to formulate simple instructions ("Jina apple") and previews ("It's great!") And the expression of questions ("Where is the little girl? ..") And describe the status of certain ("There is a Snake in the tree "). However, this type of representation remains very limited; it makes it impossible to formulate abstract concepts (as can be described as a dog but can not talk about an "animal", but can not be more talk about "living being") as well as ideas the vehicle ("the age of roses shorter than our lives, "" I met my uncle who told me that he needs us ") and made Kalosatir particular stories or myths.

This culture has enabled Almimah-centered business in the eyes of Mr. Donald to talk about topics missing and future situations (hunting scene), even without achieving a higher degree of coding.

The thesis of Mr. Donald glamorous, but it is not based on any given Archaeology convincing and decisive, and dancing and some of the rituals and rites will suffice and ruins are the remains of this topic to contemporary culture. However, the importance of his theory is to try to imagine primitive form of culture, which lead us to wonder about the crucial point: the issue of capacity is purely a linguistic category of human beings, would the products of human language has a Homo? .. On this point, we find contradictory anatomical indicators. I think Philip P. Tobias, one of the discoverers of Homo habilis, he noted in the form of the skull starting to form spaces associated with the language, and there is a date the emergence of language in 2 million years ago (8), but other indicators such as the absence throat compatible with the functions of language leads us to believe that it was impossible the ancestors of Homo sapiens that Amvsaloa and ride sounds necessary to speak. As a result,: l. Tatteresal birth determines the language in the history of Kmtdkhalh much closer with the early members of Homo sapiens since 50,000 years ago. It is there we find that the estimates for the birth of language between - 2 million years, and - 50,000 years ago is very different and far between. And to try to bridge this gap between the assumptions extreme, the other perception scenarios and feedstock; the case of lingual Derek Bickerton in his book "Language and Species Language and Species (9) It assumes the possibility of a language primary spoken by human rectum cod will be similar and close to the language of children under second year of life on the one hand, the language acquired by chimpanzees on the other. This language is composed of the primary structures among words expressive directly about a subject or a person or an act (for example "encore boire" or "pas dodo"). We find by the words of sentences, and the effect of small molecules consisting of the installation of two words.

The culture is not shown for d. Bickerton only with the emergence of abstract symbols and installation, which enabled the construction of sections of the vehicle. According to this Alkhtath, the language developed and completed is the key to mental freedom of human beings to explain the jump to the major cultural Homo sapiens.

The and Terence. Deacon, a researcher at the University of Boston, into thinking Sinarioha based on co-evolution of each of the brain, language and symbolic thinking, which shows in his book "species is The symbolic Species" that the adaptive evolution of each joint of the brain and language, which is the birth of symbolic thinking.

As a conclusion, the early class of human beings (Ergaster; Erectus). . Etc. they have the culture of a more complete human being of the culture of Java, has enabled them to develop tools to control the fire, it is a key section in the field of cultural evolution. By pooling all the theses of M.. And Dr. Donald. And T. Bickerton. And. Deacon, we can draw external features of the primary culture.

The people no longer live in the world of direct and indirect relationships between individuals or between people and nature, has become possible to develop a plan of activities in the medium term and the perception of a complete plan for fishing and the regulation of activities within the confines of a team.

As tomorrow is possible and feasible to communicate the most complete; any one that goes beyond the expression of emotions, it is possible to transfer information (through a statement that there is a tiger in this place or that, for example) and the organization of community life on the base of the commands and prohibitions, contracts and may exchange among the groups. Without a doubt, the social life changed during this period a significant change.

It remains to be lower Albaleguelaticah period did not leave behind any trace of art or ritual or religious beliefs or technological diversity, as for this purpose had to be waiting for the arrival of Homo sapiens, Vmah then will be the launch of a new era.

The terms and conditions of the emergence of Homo sapiens from about 150 thousand years remain the subject of sharp dispute, and in this context, we find three conflicting scenarios: the first scenario, called scenario multi-parties (via the parallel evolution of the human rectum cod in Africa, Asia and Europe towards Homo sapiens). The second scenario is the scenario of the African Eve (where the human mind will Satozaa Africa and then after that the sum of the globe). And the third scenario is the result of mixing two previous ones is called a complex scenario.

Homo sapiens and the explosion of cultural

Neanderthals

Certainty only the most recent is that the first Homo sapiens appeared since 150 thousand years ago, which included this category two different types: Neanderthals and Kromaon; Neanderthal is the son of my uncle run, who disappeared in 30 thousand years without leaving behind any following, but Kromaon is our ancestor direct.

Alkromaon

Will spend these people of today to create practices that were not known until that time; Since - 40.000 years in the time when the Neanderthals in the extinction, the explosion occurred a cultural real with Alkromaon, this explosion great cultural marked by several events combined and interrelated with each other: the diversity and complexity of the tools ( Arrows Mkhaatif needles), the appearance of clothing and huts, necklaces, start painting on the rocks, the emergence of the first statues. . . Etc., caves of Lascaux and graphics available ShooFeeTV enigmatic animal and its hands are of course the most famous symbol of this period (between --32 000 and - 17000).

Famous rock cave drawings

At the same now, Alkromaon bury their dead according to the ritual experience as conclusive on the existence of faith in the lives of others in the other world. Burials were found at the site of Ssongr Russia is proof most indicative of this; there buried since 28 thousand years, two young men and a man in sixty years of age, and shroud garments embroidered about 3,000 jewel of ivory, each of which required at least an hour of work to be completed . In their necks and hands were holding necklaces and Dmalj of shells, in a place against them was found Naben benches of teeth mammoths were evaluated Aauajjajhma even allegedly become straight (through the water very hot, without a doubt), and contains the tomb on the tools of bone and some sculptures small. The act like this is supposed to have been conclusively Elbashm and provide them with equipment Go to the other world. The burial of the dead, art, and complex instruments and religious beliefs, all of these cultural phenomena have emerged over a few thousand years, which motivates us to directly link between these phenomena and the question of whether expression were not good form of thinking? ..

 

Sociology

The point of view - in a dialogue with Francis Fukuyama

 "America will not abandon the policy of double standards, and will not undermine the security and stability of authoritarian regimes allied with the Arab world to support democracy in the region"

Interview India Arob
Explaining the reasons for backing away from supporting the U.S. invasion of Iraq after the first preachers to use the logic of power, Francis Fukuyama thinker controversial and with ideas Almistoagafh, who now live stage review of many of his ideas, awash with explicitly in this dialogue which recognizes the adoption of democracy as a pretext for the war on Iraq, which lacked any long-term strategy. And will not stand his candor when these limits, but will recognize the fear of Republicans from the membership of the International Criminal Court, and the need for trial, even intellectuals who pushed Pflm kiss the war, and not to give up America, part of its new for the Third Millennium, their interests Almstdeih to the policy of double standards. Also in this dialogue, we discuss again the idea of Fukuyama's The End of History and democratic institutions of the exporting countries, tertiary, and the end of American global dominance and direction of the latter towards multipolarity, then the confrontation between the Western world to Islam and the political version of the radical. And dialogue will not end without Francis Fukuyama reveal to readers the content of his forthcoming book, "The Roots of the political system."

• In 2003 changed your attitude about the idea of using the mechanism of force to strengthen and consolidate democracy, and in 2006 published an article criticizing the policy of neo-conservatives and their attitudes and actions, what are the reasons the real Hmaalthol note that you are classified as one of the neo-conservative intellectuals, and one of the advocates of the use of force against terrorism and get rid of the system Saddam?

Francis Fukuyama: There was this shift in my attitude years Badahjmat atheist Ashrmn September, and the year before the invasion of Iraq, the year 2002, when the Bush administration was preparing to invade Iraq, and I was then in a European tour to discuss issues related to American policy, the first issue of the invasion with Kbaralchksaat Europe. During the these discussions, in the midst of watching the steps invasion closely, reveal to me that the Bush administration did not attend well to this invasion, specifically for the post-invasion and reasons stated such as democracy unrelated to the fact that the invasion and its objectives, especially as I spent years Avkroabges of the U.S. invasion as a case Vietnam, and every time I conclude the same conclusion, that the U.S. invasion does not care and Yders post Baadaghazo, and Alomrmath happened in the case of Iraq, as he was as born before the invasion I found out that the Bush administration does not have any plan seriously for Baadaharb in Iraq. It was an adventure is calculated on American foreign policy. they look at Bush's invasion and its consequences imagined over optimistic, especially in the reliance on the ease of transition Nhawwaldemqratih, it became clear that they do not understand the complexities of the situation and its historical, cultural and geo-strategic, as it is not easy to create democratic institutions, the state of developing Weserah lightning, they were not aware of Bmhaazir different environmental and cultural, to adopt - they themselves - later, that Alomrlm not space spring. So lack of adequate preparation for the invasion, lack of planning, what after it, made ​​me certain that the losses and errors would be huge and terrible, so changed my position no longer an advocate of the invasion.

• Olatad the leadership of the war as "democracy" and Ddalansanah a crime against democracy itself? Is it possible to build democracy through invasion, destruction and torture?

Francis Fukuyama: Of course not; democracy were not the main objective of this war, it's an excuse promoted and believed by many, was the first concern of this war, a security assembly, the obsession second Vtgly in ending Saddam's regime as part of a series of war on terrorism, and before that has this system actually weapons of mass destruction, democracy was the only justification.

• Did not Alomdama against humanity?

Francis Fukuyama: initially can use force to protect human rights, prevention of Khtirhejom what is not wrong. But I think that the force must be used Bhzrushdid, and subject to international laws, standards and controls, the objective is the protection of the international system and to respect its laws.

• Province: but to imagine the concept of use of force "preventive", not a guarantee abuses and violations and heinous crimes committed in the name of self-defense, how is classified as "Abu Ghraib" and committed the U.S. military in Iraq under the pretext of "preventing" a potential threat.

Francis Fukuyama: I will give an example of the use of force for the purposes of good, like that of Sierra Leone in 1999, where British intervention under the UN umbrella, not for democracy, but for security, a model for the use of force.

• Comment: I think that there is a link between the case of Sierra Leone and Halhalarac, this without discussion that what is happening in sub-Saharan countries of Africa, from the disturbances, wars, famines, stands behind the major powers in collusion with local regulations, to hide later in pregnancy dress Mtoaan UN umbrella ...

Francis Fukuyama) intervening (: But I, however, say that it is possible to use a force for democracy, stressing at the same now that it should not turn into a usually routine or easy; because we can not guarantee how the use of force, Vctt and violations set out, as happened in Iraq .

• Based upon, do you get rid of Saddam's regime would have required 13 years of blockade and economic sanctions, and then finished off by the invasion of Iraq, its structure and the destruction of infrastructure, and the killing of people, young and old? Do not you think that if the U.S. got rid of Saddam Alomrakihaltdh the way you got rid of Salvador Allende of the system, it would lower the cost of war and equipment, or that the price was worth it, as Madeleine Albright said?

Francis Fukuyama: No, never, not eligible for this price, to get rid of Saddam's regime was not required to make the Iraqi people Etjra all this suffering. Msúlhan America and the suffering of the Iraqi people and the nation, it has been a terrible mistake.

• Intrusive: just a terrible mistake! Is not it a crime?

Francis Fukuyama:) laughs (Indeed, there is no standard to determine the merits Sourhjerima and, therefore, say that a terrible mistake caused by a terrible policy, rather than a crime.

• Comment: How is that? There is no standard? There are international laws, especially those relating to the wars of the Geneva Conventions and the rest of the chapters of international humanitarian law, and the Kbaralalme, intellectuals and men of international law and even some American military, they stressed it was a crime by all standards and criteria, Anhajeryma war and a crime against humanity ...

Francis Fukuyama: just say that it was a terrible mistake.

• Well, I attended together with Professor Ereli Diamond, a report on what mends his ways and crooked in the experiences of Iraq and Afghanistan, under the title What went wrong and right in Iraq and Afghanistan do you assess which experiences, and Tstron fatal errors in both, what was the fatal errors in each of the Iraq and Afghanistan?

Francis Fukuyama: they are two different: in Alhalhalavganah, no U.S. invasion supporting internationalist, and the fatal mistake is in the initiative early to rebuild the State of Afghanistan, according to Almaiaralgrbeh, making America incur huge costs and enormous were not unsustainable, has been a long time and found troops and Management Americas themselves in the case of drain. Omaalhalh Iraq, they are unlike Afghanistan, where the invasion itself Aattabrkhto murderer though he was supported by the internationalist, in addition to lack of planning for the post-war, and not expect a civil war and the terrible things that have occurred as Abu Ghraib.

• Alcalá these reasons, America fears the membership of the International Criminal Court? Can the Obama administration is pushing for membership, after flatly rejected by the Bush administration?

Francis Fukuyama: The problem lies in the inability to ratify any international treaty without the approval of two thirds of the Senate, and Obama alone will not be able to pass a resolution to approve the membership of the International Criminal Court because of Republican control in the direction of Compacters rejection.

• Outstanding: So they are afraid of the membership, and the possibility of trying members of the management of hawks by the International Criminal Court.

Francis Fukuyama) contemplates and then answer (: Yes, Alomrkzlk, they are afraid.

• This is evidence that blood on their hands, and that what they have done a crime and not just a terrible mistake. In the same context of the trial and accounting, do not you think he should be prosecuted intellectuals and researchers who pushed in the direction of the war, they were involved in the crime Pflm?

Francis Fukuyama: I think that anyone involved in such heinous acts should be held accountable, even intellectuals. But how should be held accountable?. It is in fact a complex question, the war is the decision to a decision Politically, they are involved and the first Bush administration and the military who have achieved this war, the intellectuals, there is nothing in the law refers to them.

• Reviewer: at least, to be levied morally accountable.

Francis Fukuyama: Yes, I believe strongly in accountability and intellectuals involved in the war, but certainly should not be held accountable are held accountable for how the military.

• Is it possible that the Obama administration is leading a war against Iran or Syria?

Francis Fukuyama: No, I do not think that the Obama administration will lead the war against Iran or Syria. The war is not a priority of the current U.S. administration, but that America today has become unable to lead any new war in the Middle East, the war has become a scenario feared by everyone in America. And America will not support - I believe - any step may provide unilateral war by Israel against Hizbullah, for example.

• In this case, seriously believes that America will support Israel if it took a single step by the war?

Francis Fukuyama: Yes, I firmly believe that America is not going to push Israel to take any step of war, and will not support them in case the decision was an Israeli purely, if it comes to the Bush administration to push in the direction of the war. Real and it is now, no one wants to pay towards the war.

• Do not you think that the confrontation between radical Islam and the Arab world led by America, has opened a new era of history and not the end as you expected? Then you not see that the Western model of democracy, specifically the concept of Thariralsouk open a history of slavery and domination, poverty and dependency, as the depth of the gap between the global south and north, and thus idea of the end history and the world to adopt a single model) western democracy (is against human nature and dynamics of communities Alepeshriaaly local and international levels?

Francis Fukuyama: I do not think so, because even in the Islamic world, radical Islam Garmreh it, and the Islamists generally have the concept of theocracy very authority and the State as a model of the Taliban and Salafi movements. In the Arab world there is no strong support for these currents, and I doubt that link these movements to power, the Living under the Islamic Republic will not find great acceptance. but I recognized that the Islamic model - political, remains at the global level, an alternative to the alternatives on the scene Kalmaarkisih for example, and is certain that different alternative in terms of its contents, principles and concepts, different even in the struggle, Vasraa America and Islam radical variant of the conflict the U.S. - USSR.

• You talk in your book Building Nations from the idea of exporting institutions, in the sense that America should not export goods and aid money, but democratic institutions. Do not you think that this idea against the serial natural to create institutions, any society is the need to create institutions through the dynamics, not to issue him?

Francis Fukuyama: first, can not you be institutions unless there is support from within the community, The establishment of institutions means the solution The problems that are known to society, and move towards institutional governance is also good, but I do not see the harm in models inspired by foreign institutional, it is not in what it suggests to colonize new.

• So what do you mean the export of institutions?

Francis Fukuyama: What is meant Is to support the major international institutions like the World Bank for developing societies, and pressure in the direction of institutionalization, and ownership of institutions more effective, transparent and democratic, so I do not think that the process of exporting establishments are simple and easy.

• Reviewer: communities need to the natural course of the creation of institutions, the idea of Tsidiralamassat then she signed a colonial, and the fact that rash us double of what is the holder of the emblem of America - U.S. intervention - the U.S. invasion, American tutelage ... even U.S. support. We are in the communities tertiary need to be Nkt our course and go into battle alone with her ​​and what it ... why should instead think about us?

Francis Fukuyama: It is true what you are saying is true, it is among the greatest tragedies in the last decade, the exploitation of the Bush administration to the idea of development Democracy and support or be an excuse For the invasion of Iraq, and to intervene in the internal affairs of other countries, which strips the concept of help from Almsaddaqh It also distorted the image of America.

• So I think you took the initiative and other experts such as: Larry Diamond. & Michael AFaul Mc, to write and sign the report of the New Day New Way, US foreign assistance for the "" 21 h centry report notes the tone of the conscience awake and recognition errors and sectors of the U.S. foreign policy within the confines of the system World unipolar, as noted your quest to rebuild the image of America's moral - through this report - saying that the American character and also It can be a good partner after the master arrogant, but what did I observe in this report is whether America will remain in the quest to build a new image - the policy of double meaning calibrator with the right support autocracy, democracy left hand?.

Francis Fukuyama: It is true that America supports democracy and is interested in them as the basis of the foundations of its foreign policy, but America in the same now not give herself the guardian of democracy across the world as a target Oouhd and the highest for U.S. foreign policy, Vmsaleh significant weight in the process. The U.S. interests conflicting and diverse as the difference regions of the world, there are obsessed with security, the war on terrorism, support for autocracy, to ensure permanent access to oil resources .. All of these interests, which are written in terms of U.S. foreign policy, so if we spot what we support democracy, we are now in the same Support the autocratic regimes in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Morocco .. etc. These cases show that democracy is not an initial priority along the line, although we support the programs of development and democracy in the Arab world but it is not a priority in this region. And practical question to be asked is how to change or least reduce the policy of double standards. the truth, I do not think the existence of the government would abandon this policy in its dealings with American interests, not one will say, "Come to the said Allen System in Morocco or Egypt for democracy "No one would do that, they're our allies if they were autocrats, and they have an important role in curbing the Islamic threat and the war on terrorism.
So, I think, and even reduce the American policy of double standards, by not giving priority to more awareness of the balance on the balance of democratic despotism, while seeking to protect their interests, and therefore it should put pressure on autocratic regimes Ally, even expand the area of freedoms, rights and freedom of the Democrats of human rights defenders.

• Reviewer: Sorry, your systems while receiving the allied forces of democracy in the prisons, or narrowing them down, America closed her eyes, does not care about it, any support for the Democrats and human rights is this?.

Francis Fukuyama: Exactly, so I think it is our duty as agents active in the American pressure on our governments to take practical steps more to support human rights and the protection of defenders in areas where the ruling autocratic and ally of America in the same now, in Musrmthela, the American pressure Oktheraly Mubarak paid his regime in the direction of democratic decision-making serve more, and to provide guarantees of non-exposure of the opposition Democrats. The truth is that America does not fear the Democrats as much as fear the Islamic forces in the Middle East.

• Outstanding: So America supports the authoritarian rulers of the region, and give them the green light to do what you like, only the green danger Stay away from us.

Francis Fukuyama: This is true of the errors committed by the U.S. administration that used the authoritarian rulers in the Arab region to reduce The risk of Islamists, but they took advantage of it to suppress the Democrats.

• Are we to recognize the problem discussed in the next book The origins of political order?

Francis Fukuyama: written next consider the question of the roots of the state and the foundations of this entity, and the role of law, it also covers some geographic areas and fields of different political to preview the experience of the state with all of China, India, the Islamic Caliphate and the Sultanate's experience in Egypt, then the history of evolution of political and institutional in the Middle East, as well to study some cases in the European context The same.

• After it changed your attitude, and after the wars fought by America in charge, and is still like that Ddalarhab fought, how to read the future date? The end is still in the direction that I talked about? Or is it the end of American global dominance in the direction of a multipolar world?.

Francis Fukuyama) laughing (: The argument of the "end of history" related to the idea of Western democracy as a model Well, I still think their health, in addition to my belief that the end of control America has been solved already, especially after the recent financial crisis. We are now compete with other countries such as China and Russia, America and even Brazil, America is not alone in influencing the decisions of the international arena. Moreover, the control of one state The world is neither healthy nor normal, today we are heading towards a multipolar world which is more natural.

---------------
Interview conducted at Stanford, California, Universiti light in November 2010

Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama, author and thinker, an American national of Japanese descent, was born in Chicago in 1952. Is one of the most important thinkers of the neo-conservatives. Of his books: The End of History and the Last Man and the great collapse or fracture) and confidence (.

Iaterfokuyama one of the philosophers and thinkers contemporary Americans, as well as being a professor of International Political Economy and Director of the International Development Program at the University of Johns Hopkins, is currently the status of research on democracy, development and the rule of law at Stanford University - California.

Fukuyama graduated from the Department of Classical Studies at Cornell University, where he studied political philosophy at the hands of Allen Bloom Allen Bloom, while he received his Ph.D. from Harvard University, where he majored in political science.

And university teaching as well as the work of many functions: the work of a consultant in the U.S. State Department.

In 1989 the readers of the journal National Interest National Interest to date with the article "Nhihaltarich" which created a jolt of thought, where he said: The end of the history of oppression and totalitarian regimes is over forever with the end of the Cold War and the demolition of the Berlin Wall, to be replaced and liberal values ​​of Western democracy. He has explained his theory of Fukuyama's controversial book published in 1992 entitled "The End of History and the Last Man." Fukuyama was intended to oppose the idea of the end of history in the theory of Karl Marx's famous "historical materialism", which he considered that the end of persecution of human history will end when the differences between the layers disappear. Fukuyama was also influenced by the views of his theory in building the famous philosopher Hegel, philosopher and teacher, Allan Bloom, both of which connect between the end of persecution of human history and the stability of the free market system in Western democracies.

For a long time, before changing his positions, he considered Francis Fukuyama, one of the ideologues of the neo-conservatives, where he founded and a group of these in 1993, a research center known at the time the draft American Century, has called for he and his former U.S. President Bill Clinton need to get rid of the regime of former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.

Economy and social movement

 Researchers, economics and social movement

• Pierre Bourdieu
• Of his book: Contrary to the fire (fire extinguisher) [text to contribute to the anti-neoliberal tide]

Pierre Bourdieu

It was a movement in December 1995 social movement of unprecedented scope and by their own goals. If she was considered very important by a significant portion of the population, French and static world in particular, because it also adopted a completely new targets in the field of social conflicts. Confused and ambiguous, and on the chart style (GDP) came to the draft community a real certified by the collective and is capable of confronting the social project imposed by the policy, the dominant and by the revolutionary conservatives who are currently in power, and within the political institutions and institutions of the production of speech . and Ptsaala about what researchers can be Bivoh Initiative similar cases in the public satisfied that their attendance after the discoverer of the cultural and ideological revolution pure for this province. If the movement in December the movement will be approved by an overwhelming majority is very large; it is because it seemed to be a defense for the gains of social not a particular social group, even if a particular social group is a match of this movement because they felt, in particular more than others, but to the entire community, even for a number of communities: These relate to the gains to employment, education and public transport, and what is public, and there are related to the state; this institution that are not necessarily the opposite of what we believe to be primitive and reactionary. If this movement had emerged in France, this is not a coincidence; there are historical reasons, but that may antagonize the observers is that they continue rotating format; France in different formats and unexpected movement of the drivers, it was expected they occur in this way? .. And also in Europe; Spain now; Greece a few years ago; in Germany, where the movement of the movement inspired by the French, declared explicitly for the relevance; Korea, which is also very important for symbolic reasons and practical. This kind of conflict is a shift in what seems to me in the search for the unity of theoretical and practical private, and can be considered the vanguard of the French movement a global struggle against neoliberalism and against the new conservative revolution that dimension takes the symbolic importance of including very large. But I think that one weakness of the progressive movements is that they underestimated this dimension, Tnges not always appropriate to the weapons of resistance and Massarath. The social movements to lag behind many of the revolutions is compared with opponents who rely on consultants and advisers in connection television .. Etc.. Declares the revolution to maintain it for the neo-liberal , Amadfah the same aura of scientific and ability to work as a theory, and one of the errors of theoretical and practical for many of the theories from the theory of Marxism was to forget to take into account the effectiveness of the theory, not a right we should make that mistake. We in the face of foes armed with theories; and it comes in what seems to me Bmgarathm weapons of intellectual, cultural, and the exercise of this conflict, and by the division of labor, some people are armed better than the others; and because of that profession, and a certain number of them willing to engage in work, What advice can contribute? .. First, a certain authority. What is called people who supported the Government of December? .. We have named experts, whereas those were not for them all the very beginning of the quarter as economic. Must face the impact of power this impact other authority to authority, but that's not all; strength of the power of scientific practice on the social movement, and even the depths of the conscience of the workers the power of very large; they spoke a form of discouragement, and one of the reasons for its strength is that it is exercised by the people who looked to be on good terms with each other Compatibility is generally a sign of truth, but it is also based on and relies on tools that owned the day this thought, which seems prima facie to be Aloaty force, ie, on mathematics in particular. The role of what we call the ideology of the dominant is the role exists today through the use of certain of mathematics (and those exaggerated by excessive, but a way to raise attention to the question that the act of rationalism any question of providing reasons to justify the things that do not accept the justification often found today in economics mathematical tool very strong .) It is important to oppose this ideology that wear the robe of a pure conservative ideology pure reason and the reasons and arguments and evidence Tfnivat; the exercise of any scientific work. One of the strengths of the neo-liberal thought is the same as imposing a form of "the great chain of existence," as was the case in the old theological metaphors that we find God in one end, then go after that until we reach the more modest the facts through a series of episodes. In the mist of neo-liberalism and the place of God in the highest high courts there is a gym, and on the bottom there is an ideological thought-do not know much about economics, but it can fool the people that know him a little thanks to some technical Alqamosa polishing. For this series the very strong effect of an authoritarian. There are doubts even among activists who produce all of the power, social power basis, and on the theory that give power to the words of Mr. Trichet or Mr. President Tietmeyer Albondespank, or this or that book of essays. This is not a series of proofs, but rather a series of authorities going from sports to banking, and banking to the philosopher, journalist, essayist, and to the journalist. It is also a channel moves the money and all kinds of economic and social privileges, invitations and global account and veneration. We can Alsosiologian, and without the exercise of defamation, that we dismantle these networks and explain how the circulation of ideas is backed by the rotation of power; there are people who commute services against the ideological positions of authority. Have to offer examples, but enough to read with interest the list of signatories of the "broad experts" notorious. What is important is that already in the hidden links between people who usually work independently, even if we see them often appear in two by two false debates on television, and between institutions, associations, magazines, etc. .. by shaving the veil which in the clear day. These people collectively use, and compatibility on the basis of Fashion, a letter is to convert Qdria Alenzuat as economic, but social laws, economic laws, etc. .., do not operate only on the level that let it affect him. If the Conservatives by the laissez-faire, it is because of these laws to maintain impartiality, the need to let him work in order to maintain. The laws of financial markets in particular, those that Ihdthonna them down, are the laws of the province need to let him work to be completed. Have to crystallize and Nhaj minutes and express our thoughts, and seek an excuse for Altbsaitia side when I came to say. As for what the social movement, it can only exist; so it creates enough of a hassle, and will not increase the demand that it provide justification. As for the intellectuals who join the social movement, we ask them immediately: "But what you propose? .. "We do not need to fall into the trap of the program, there are enough parties and hardware for that, and what we can do is to create not a program counter, but the body and the arrangement of the research group in between systems and the world will bring together researchers and activists and representatives of the fighters .. Etc., as well as researchers in view of their role specified: they can participate effectively in teams, in particular the work and thinking, and because of that profession, in partnership with members of those inside the movement. And that excludes at once a certain number of roles: Researchers are not the guys the way; any prisoners and the Trustee and immediate ceramic Chinese and excuses those who signed petitions and those who get rid of them as soon as we finish using them; they are not also Jaddanovyin come to practice within the social movements authorities-looking intellectual, which does not can be exercised within the intellectual life; they are not even two anti-expert experts, not the prophets also will answer all the questions about the social movement and about the future. They are the people who can help determine the function of bodies such as these, or the reminder that people who are here are not present here as speaking on behalf of the parties they represent, but as citizens came to a space for discussion and research they have ideas and arguments, leaving the depot clothing languages ​​wood, flat roofs and customs of the device , and it is not easy not easy, always. Among the habits of the danger which threatens us back from the new composition of the committees and there are suggestions of prepared formulations often .. etc.. The sociology learned how to operate the teams and how to take advantage of laws that operate and accordingly the difference to try to repeal these laws. Must invent new forms of communication between researchers and activists, a new division to work with each other. One of the tasks that researchers can accomplish better than any other person may lie in the resistance of the hammer media; we hear all day long sentences carefully crafted and perfectly, so we could not open the radio without hearing talk of "global village" and " globalization ".. etc., It does not form her words, but words pass through the philosophy and the look of the entire world of fatalism and secrete Turkaa. We can oppose this hammer the media through the criticism of words and by helping non-professionals to acquire the private armies of the resistance, in order to resist the impact of authoritarianism on the power of television, which plays absolutely central role; we can not go into today's social conflicts without having a software conflict, the quality of with and against the television, and was referred to the book, Patrick Champagne "opinion making", which must be some sort of book Gladiator political Manual ^(1). The battle in this struggle against the intellectuals, the media battle is important. For my part, these people do not go to sleep from my eyes and not think about them at all when I write, but their point of view the political role of the utmost importance, and hoped to accept the slice of the researchers cut off part of her time and energy and devoted to research in the way of struggle to ensure anti-influence . another goal; and is in the creation of new formulas for the symbolic act; and I think on this point that the social movements, with some historical exceptions, are movements of late. The Patrick Champagne presents in his book how some of the major forms of packaging that does not command the pages of newspapers and on television but from places to places less small-scale demonstrations, but organized it of interest to journalists. And not a matter of course in turn Bmassarah journalists who suffer under the pressure of the constraints of fragility, with all the effects of control produced by this vulnerability at the level of all professions of cultural production. But it is essential to know that much of what we can say or do will be screened, which often negate it through what he has to say about journalists, including what we do here, and this Note will not be re-produced in their reports ... and to end by saying that one of the problems is the to be meditative and this heavy word, but did not use the free of charge; we've got a goal not only devise a new formula for the organization of the protest action and conflict, organization, and new versions of the act of struggle. What can we dream of researchers is the possibility to be part of our research useful to social movement rather than lost as is often the case today, because it is catcher and distorted by journalists or anti Múlan .. etc.. We hope in the context of teams like the band "emitters move Raisons d'agir "create new forms of expression enables the delivery of the most advanced research achievements of the activists, but this is assumed by the researchers to change the language of the event and thought. And until we return to the movement of social I think as I said it just that we are movements rotating to the conflict I ​​could also mention strikes by students and professors, Belgium, and strikes in Italy .. etc. against the imperialism of neo-liberalism; conflicts did not know each other more often (which can take formulas are not always peaceful, such as some forms of fundamentalism). Permission must be at least unify the global media and work on the publication and delivery. Must re-invent the internationalism that the trend has been captured and diverted by Soviet imperialism; any theoretical innovation modes of thinking and modes of practical action capable of positioning at the level that can occur when the battle. If it is true that most of the economic forces dominant move at the global level and across nations, it is also true that there is a place empty, a place of conflicts, transnational, place an empty theory because it is a thinker in it, and it is not busy practice, the lack of organization of a truly global power capable of counter-revolutionary conservative new on the European level at least.