Epistemology

 History of Science

Often ignoring epistemology: the history of science.

We will leave to Alexander Querry, the most famous specialist in the field of historical studies of the evolution of science, the power to determine the importance and necessity of this form of epistemology.

11. Why history of scientific thinking? ..

"The history of scientific thinking as I understand it, and forced myself to exercise, aimed at understanding the process of thinking within this movement, the creative activity itself. In this regard, it is necessary to reposition the achievements studied in the middle of the cultural, spiritual, and construed according to the habits of mental peace and preferences and Abominations of her book themselves. We must resist the attempt where there are many historians of science, those that turned the idea often ambiguous and non-smart, and even contradictory to the ancient idea of easy handling, and translating them into modern language, explain them, but distorted in the same now as vice versa, it is not There is a better study of the different proofs of the same theorem and executed by: Erhimdess and Cavalieri and Roberval and Paroo.

It is also essential that we enter in the history of scientific thinking is the way he understands it is the same, the system located in relation to previous thinking and its accompanying. We can not minimize the importance of arguments thinker such as "couldn" or "Taki" against "Cavalieri" and "Torricelli" and would be dangerous not to conduct a study on the near of the way in which it is delivered, "Wallis" or "Newton" or "Ebentz" History of Discoveries private, or neglect of the philosophical debates fueled by the discoveries.

Must finally study the mistakes and setbacks in the same interest that we study its successes; Vokhtae people such as "Cartesian" or "Galilei", and failures of people, such as "Boyle" or "hook" is not only of the importance of training, but also revealed the difficulties that had to be won by and the obstacles that had to be overcome.

If we have lived through crises or three deep crises related to our way of thinking "crisis of foundations" and the "disappearance divorced" sports, the revolution associated with the theory of relativity and the revolution of quantum, and if we had Asrna the destruction of our ideas old, tried to adapt to new ideas, we are more qualified who have preceded us to understand the crises and controversies that have around.

I think that our time especially qualified for this type of research, and is qualified to teach assigned to him under the title: History of scientific thinking. We no longer live in a world of ideas Newtonian, and not also Almaxwellah, and as a result, we are qualified to ponder from home and abroad alike, as well as to analyze the structures and the discovery of the causes of failure, and we are armed and we can understand the meaning of discounts and medieval about the components of the extension [is the problem of the transition to reduction (final) posed Cavalieri, especially as the following: Is it possible to say that the line consists of points and the space of lines. . . Etc.? .. And it comes to the problem of an ancient form of the first known is the antithesis xenon Aleli] and "display formats", and the evolution of the structure of mathematical reasoning and physical in the last century, in his efforts to create new forms of rational thinking and return cash to the foundations of intuitive and logical and Alokseyoumatih to its validity. "

Alexander Querry

"Studies in the history of scientific thinking"

Jalemar 73 pp: 14-15.

T. Hoakas

Religion and the birth of modern science

Very difficult, if not impossible to give examples of historical studies, because of space required by these studies, we are directing those who want to now since the idea of ​​owning it to analyze the concepts Galilih that enabled the expression of the law of falling objects.

However we will see that the method specified by the discovery Querry, and also his study of the perceptions of classical physics, are based on the perception of history, more specific, imagine is far from being alone possible. Querrey has strained the already very clear that scientific ideas are always the product of other ideas, and is not connected never a given state of knowledge of the evolution of scientific thought or external factors (socio-economic technical conditions), and focuses not only on ideological factors, and for this we can say that is the epistemological Abstamologith internal Internaliste, as long as was decided should be research on the origin of the idea within the format of scientific ideas in an age specific. Text shows that the governor Vinominologih Khath epistemology, that is descriptive, it has its limits, and that the position externally Externaliste gives us a more complementary about the history of science.

12. Two possibilities for the history of science: the point of view the internal and external point of view.

"Why the flag was born the" modern "in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries? .. The question is tempting but difficult (....).

As is the case, the interpretations proposed by specialists many, often divergent, and that is partly connected porous news-related history, which has often been neglected, but not only them alone, conflicts, sometimes violent, which appear among historians of science is behind the cause of deep: A disagreement about the nature of "science" itself. This is the other reason for the importance of these debates, which in the later to be a purely technical, it is directly related to the way that Nkunha for scientific activity and its place in the life of the community. We must never forget that our own thoughts on culture, knowledge, work and life are put to the test through differences knowledgeable about the civilization of the Renaissance.

The science, for some historians, is essentially the composition and construction of my mind, and to emphasize the position of the privacy of scientific activity, and the actions logical traded through the "curriculum", and the gradual establishment of "content" of science, and the problem of critical importance is the problem of knowledge as well. The study of the science (science) means the practice of history of ideas and perceptions that enabled the birth of the various theories, some of the influences from abroad (particularly impacts philosophical) are taken into account, but science is practically a field independent, relationships with the world of action relations marginal in the sense of the word. Historian specializing in tight, so dig deep gulf between this form of history of science and others: any date techniques and art history and history of the division of labor and political history. . . Etc., and this is what is commonly called, the point of view "internal".

Insists Other historians on the relations that unite the various sectors of the main activity, accusing them upset and internal point of view, and they recognize that science search for knowledge, but they see that we can not stand at this point; science is Maima historical sense, full of the word, the sense that it is active in conditions more varied, the circumstances must be examined closely each time, to understand some of the accuracy of any meaningful effort is moving towards knowledge. Although these historians differentiate between a place of history procedure of the science, we call them "external." They are already more sensitive to the plurality of shapes and images that masquerade of science in different civilizations, and they are worried about in particular the analysis of the integration of "knowledge" in the general sense in these different contexts. The people of the West is considered implicitly or explicitly that knowledge superior to all other sciences, talking always about the flag to indicate that science-the "modern" science "experimental" born since the time of Galileo, and this is reason to believe that knowledge of the transcendent, and that is there is only aware of one is aware of a sense do not time, and is capable of revealing the truth to people, but how does one explain that this science has much to be born in some countries in Europe in the late 16th century? ..

The Joseph Needham in his distinctive, put the same question another way: Why did not generate modern science in China? .. Answer historians internal for example, that the scientific revolution Angdan triggered by the "revolution of philosophy," As for the historian of an external, this interpretation of the alleged derived from ideal; to that system located at the level of ideas alone, and modified in question rather than answer it, and should already know what was the right community What is this brightness "philosophical" and was not entitled to another community. The internal historians, according to Needham, always stumble in front of this drawback, willingly or unwillingly, openly or twisted words, and therefore is not able to render the interpretation of accident or delivery "racist."

In fact, confirms Needham, should be used to study the sociological, historical, and if it is not "science" was born in China, it is futile to believe that this, see the fact that the Chinese have not been able to get an idea of the experiment, or because of a lack of imagination they have by fatalism not aware of . To be due to social conditions and circumstances were not appropriate ("bureaucratic feudalism", the lack of a merchant class.... Etc.). The Chinese were during our mediator with the applicants on Europe in the fields of scientific, technical, multiple, and if we stick to talk about ideas, it is canned, but must be recognized (a very general sense) that the cultural traditions and philosophical to the Chinese, were less qualified to make the idea of "mechanical." However, this only shows that the sociological study is talking about Needham to take to fully study the attitudes and perceptions which in turn requires to be taken into account. It will not help us fuse the abstract for the modern European spirit and the spirit of China and, in return, you must force the breath to link the forms of thinking about the historical conditions in the aggregate (the geographical center, and the means of production, economic social and political structures, language and cultural institutions.... Etc.).

To explain how the birth of science, is not enough to determine the origin of ideas in cultural sense of the word, and worthy also to understand why this group has given humanity or the interest and attention in particular to these ideas, and devoted considerable efforts to create it. The historians outside, do not deny that it was on this issue renovations cultural (intellectual), but they are studying their growth to give historical circumstances of the utmost importance, and they also refuse to see the release of "experimental science" in Italy, England and France just grant divine; that is starting their associated depth and, more fundamentally, the growth pattern of post-feudal society: the development of maritime trade and industry and finance. . . Etc., and should not be separate cultural factors from its Personal: capitalism first and the evolution of the banking system, and acceleration is clear to the technology (technical marine and technical textiles, mines, artillery, engineering and printing), social progress for engineers, artists, and discoveries geographical major reform and Counter-Reformation.

Obviously in the current situation that many points remain unclear: Historians outside no problem with this regard, but it is not fair to accuse their research immediately on the grounds that the center of economic and social researcher can not be "cause" or reason for his theory. Of course, also refers to the sociological t. As Merton, the research "Galilei" were not "causes" the possible applications for the information of dynamics to it, but this does not prevent it said in the beginning of "articles about the flags of two new" including the following: "What a a vast field of thinking opens it appeared to me in front of the conflicting minds, gluing Permanent famous manufacturer of your weapons, gentlemen Venetians, especially mechanical business district! "Thus, the subject of his work strictly within the perspective of Needham system or Merton. The feature of the theory of science does not deny \ n but the application of science is the subject of the relationship with the applications of other social and idealists they like to note that it can not be inferred theory of relativity, the Einstein of Bebleowerevih, may be that way too tight to put the problems of history of science in the West, both on or on the theme of his approach, and again the tree obscured the forest. We recommend that you recognize, a working hypothesis, that science is not only the theories of mental production, but at the same time a phenomenon of cultural and social practice is not isolated from the rest of the practices. We are suffering from a shortage of certain perceptions enable us to accurately identify some relationships, and not at our disposal after the theoretical framework is sufficient to re-establish the valuation of the various arguments and the history of science, but attempts to found above, confirm the legitimacy of historical research and fertility of Foreign Affairs.

The Alexander Querrey, who is considered among the best representatives of the history of procedure, be punished for all those who insisted on the role of the practical needs and the role of economic factors, they fell into the "prejudices Allbeckonah and Marxism" prejudices material: Bacon Ombriqi saw that all our thoughts comes from the senses, and Marx saw that the kind determined by our material] is that the same is not definitely excluded from the prejudices of idealism. In this regard, the book written by Querry about the Renaissance (and on the architecture) is the most significant: it was able to deliberate in this book avoid mentioning or even a reference to the "Pro" and "Nilishe" and not "Alberti" and not "Pier della Francesca" 

"Modern science between the devil and god good"

In the "Journal of Arushirh" No. 35 June 1973.

T. Hoakas

We will see clearly the weakness of internal analysis by one of the examples, it is destined Twyllie Pierre, in the gallery mentioned text, arrows of criticism for a Alabstamologian interns is: t. Hoakas: author of "Religion and the birth of modern science."

Wanted by linking the emergence of modern science variable ideological one and only, is a religion, and so bowed, against all logic and against the same facts, to recognize that religious ideas are the cause of the illness of scientific ideas, while the lowest search or examination of historical does not explain it formed [ie, religious ideas] legitimacy. A look Khath to be a scientific thought process is the heart of the ideal self-evident and clear, and we will notice that the sociology of religion Hoakas heavy Alphippria the direction of sociology, which saw some of the ideas in the religious ideas of tendency Puritan, bug evolution of capitalism.

Religion and the birth of modern science

13. Satan against God good external procedure.

"Contemporary science, says Hoakas, mechanical: it is a machine-like nature, and a set of machines that require required research for its laws. Has had to reach this perception (speech always Hoakas) exceeded the ideas of Plato and Aristotle and ideas Atomic also ^1, and visualization Gospel of God the creator and the creator who is making this change possible: that the God of Engineer will be possible later analysis of his work systematically and mathematically. Nature is no longer Malhh, are no longer comparable with the membership of the governed live with one or a set of principles Mahith, and has since been able to, "Boyle" a metaphor of science hour Strasbourg: the view will fix the "mechanical" as a framework of astronomy and modern physics.

In the field of biology, announces this philosophy for itself, very clear: This is almost "Mersin" animals with machines must study the incentives and motives g In 1634 he wished to be building an object to have the blood circulation: That would be the most important way to accumulate knowledge in the field of physiology. It has been assumed by Descartes, in his encyclopedia of man, that man is a machine, a variety of robotics: the heart and arteries like the "bellows in Eragn (the church) that drive the air in the air paths." It is estimated that some Hoakas evangelical themes helped to compensate rational Aldogmatiqih rationally cash, and against the rational Aldogmatiqian ² who claimed the ability to penetrate the secrets of nature through meditation deductive, the contemporary science "Ombrikie"; the sense that he used the experience and experimentation. To remind Essai Isaïe when he said: "Because the Lord said: My thoughts are not your thoughts; Vavcara superior to your ideas," and this means for scientists: that God chose the laws of nature freely, to become known in which that man can not rely on the direction of his mind alone. The experimental investigation, then meet with the guidance and the potential backdoor for Jewish-Christian conception of the world.

Hoakas offers on many other points of evidence of similar, so the Bible gives great value to manual work, and encourages also the rights to control and dominate nature, and in that way, contributed to religion, in the formation of technical and experimental mentality of the Renaissance.

Are of the indicators collected by Hoakas have great value, and must be recognized that the Bible contains a certain number of ideas that can modify the trends humanitarian sense in which we have seen, however, you can say, as suggested by this, that the science is the "result" of these perceptions of the Evangelical? . . It would be really tempting to do an inventory and cataloging of these perceptions and recognition of its specific impact, sometimes visible and the other implicit. But the issue is that these biblical texts did not have during the centuries of any "effects" scientific at all, why these thoughts suddenly turned to the ideas of actors from the centuries 14 and 15? . .

The same question arises all the time. Certainty that the idea formed the Evangelical possible framework for the idea of "mechanical" as well as the philosophy of the pilot, however, and even speak clearly, you have played the role of sacred texts is really driving the spark in this regard? . . Or rather, not only provided an ideology suitable for dynamic and enterprising society at all levels? . .

The answer provided by the Hoakas somewhat ambiguous; is inclined by the religious factor is often given to the importance and effectiveness of the historical value of the exaggerated on the one hand, but on the other hand explicitly recognizes that the factors "socio-economic and political geography" has exercised its influence. What is regrettable is that the analysis did not pay off in this direction; as he could then indicate clearly that the rise of the philosophy of "mechanical" has followed the paper economically and socially irrefutable art machinery (mechanical) and mechanical conditions. If the similes and metaphors Almmeltjih to the idea of God had multiplied, it happened at first glance, and without doubt, due to practical reasons related to employment history and techniques within the confines of a given society. It is certainly appropriate that we leave to our minds the belief seep though loosely, a belief that the Bible says that the fact was able to guide the movement. "The rise of Engineers" is also essential, at least, without a doubt more than that.

In the same way, we can wonder about the increased level of any "religion" of the value of manual work and empirical research. The Hoakas himself gave evidence to suggest the belief that the Bible more than ever followed; Vakchavat Portuguese sailors for example, explained that the sailors were able to the heart of the views of "scientists" and "philosophers." What is common in the Renaissance, is the ability of people do not have little or nothing of the cultural configuration, a remodeling and clarify [certain ideas] Aldogmatiqian for scientists, thanks to their knowledge of the process. Thus explained, "Bernard Balishe" visitors learned that the other things after spending two hours with him than they have learned through their reading of philosophers during the fifty years. Hoakas inevitably be handed over like that such statements reflect the social reality can not be explained only partly by influencing the Evangelist.

It is a mental regret that this study gives, because of the lack of adequate space allocation of the factors "external", the image is relatively impoverished and distorted (as we think) the circumstances where he was born the new science. That's "religion" without controversy, a place in the history of science, but what is needed is a statement of a more integrated, would show the profits and losses, and would more accurately analyze the various manifestations of religion (the Gospel theology the decisions of the official church... Etc.), can also be good discrimination of cases adopted by the Gospel, especially to justify or amplify the trends that were born abroad. We see what a good scare and external point of view, some historians in the form of the features of satanic Marxist, but this is not a justification for God singled good part of the most beautiful "

Abstamologiat

 5. Various forms of epistemology

We have seen so far how different approaches, epistemological, and as we will see in the mixture following Valabstamologia not Mbgesa a single unified and does not accept the division: as we can say that they Study of the used methods are often scientific, but with walks and different origins for the study of science (logic, history science meeting of psychology.... etc.).

• 11. Epistemology: A group of detectives.

"There is no public Kmbges unified epistemology; is positioned at the intersection of interests and a wide variety of Investigation objectives and curricula. The following list, which does not claim completeness and accuracy does not, give us an idea of this dispersion.

• In the back of the photograph which we will submit there is a philosophical tradition: Plato; Aristotle; Descartes; Kant. . . Etc., all of these theories formulated a general knowledge, for different types of knowledge assets and their source (the mind - imagination - the experience.... Etc.), and all these contributions we find are often linked to concepts Dougmatiqih, that were not imperialist. However, the issues developed in this way is still a large number of directed research.
• I have tried to scientists and philosophers to the renewal of the "scientific method" as much as it is accurate. To mention the hundreds of others: and woe, Claude Bernard, Poincaré, Dohim, Einstein, Carnap, Popper. What is the logical structure of the theory of what? .. How can the "verification" of them by the facts? .. What is the "induction"? .. These studies are ad valorem Draseat clearly; they often insist on the criteria that must be respected on science, and raise the question of "worth."
• There are other research since the time of Auguste Comte, and belong to the sociology of knowledge, to mention here, Marx, Durkheim, Levy Brule, Weber, Lukacs, Mannheim, Sorokin. Trends advertised by these businesses is very different, but what unites them is in the following general approach: the knowledge is not Kbuniat independent and personal, but social Kinsatat linked to other social activities in a specific historical period.
• The sociology of science is the application of the previous approaches in the research is very limited: study "Merton" on "Alttehrah, inertia and Science" is a classic study in this section. Some of the titles derived from the Group of Barber and Hirsch (sociology of knowledge 62) describes the diversity of this research: "American indifference humanitarian research during the 19th century." "Production of scientific and academic organization" - "discounts precedence" - "science and social order." . . Other studies have focused on "Altermdenamik and religion." . . And so on. There is the idea of special importance for epistemology, and of "consensus" science: theories are the result of the validity of a collective agreement, based frame of reference standards are not all aware of and certainly not rational.
• We can consider that book as a book Cohen, "Structure of Scientific Revolutions" living bond between some of the dimensions of sociological and some dimensions of epistemological of scientific activity (despite what is mentioned in the writer, despite the objectives authorized for the work in question, not about the Bsosiologih science, but to study the relationship between scientific ideas and some Afadiologgiot religious and political.... etc.). many books dedicated to the various dimensions of "science policy" and for "allocated" scientists. . . And so on.
• He knew the history of science - without there being a rift with the sociology of science - remarkable progress since the beginning of the 20th century. Proceeding from the principle of this science, the difficulties raised: Is it possible to write the history of science without the interpretation of human knowledge based on previous knowledge of the present, and in a manner of time and not distorted to such knowledge? .. The history is purely descriptive and threatened omission of dynamic scientific thinking, is that "the history of epistemology" is threatened by the insertion of value judgments is appropriate (what should have been on the world to "do" for "of his mistakes".... Etc.).

Some authors have explained such a. Querry that can be employed erudition to do the interpretation and clarification is rigorous and accurate and understandable in the same now. The distinction between the date of (internal) of the Science study especially the development of scientific ideas and crystallization of the concepts and theories, and history (external) is interested in increasing intervention of social science, in particular the impact of "needs social "and the ideology of scientific knowledge, is the relatively artificial distinction, but an adequate and appropriate.

• Seems to be the psychology of science is still in its infancy, but research in the field of social psychology from the very widest field of psychoanalysis. I have been wondering for example whether it was not for specialists (sports - physicists T. biologists....) Aspects of the particular psychological, or what is "the impact of processes is unconscious on the exercise of logical thinking and the error makes sense in the field of scientific research." It should be noted the special status Studies carried out under the supervision of a collective Jean Piaget: the formative epistemology. As the name to the piece, the goal is to study how the articulation of the various stages of knowledge (science since childhood to adult) with a closer link between logical analysis and psychological analysis.

There are some who see finally that the ethnological study of the scientific community will not be without interest; in order to study the "insider ritual of" the many and complex, which allow the acceptance of (the researcher) within the framework of the elite, and make him a god: a milestone - PhD - Professor - academically. . .. "(Hatzmann" science and society "Lavon 71 p. 90).

Pierre Twyllie

Science games and bets

Lavon 72 pp: 54-57

Abstamologion

Critique results

 4. Epistemology: criticism of the results.

Mendel discovered the laws of heredity

All scientific research tendency imperialist: often we do not believe or expect that it can be to the scientists excellent or cautious in the field of their own research, according to scientific discovery in the field of specific fields of science, to call the possibility of extending and stretching their discoveries outside the boundaries that limit where these results applications, and Hak example known: it is the extension of laws "Mendel" to the transfer of musical talent, and genetic claimed, in a family c. Q. Bach. If we have chosen this example to illustrate the pages of the final decision of Section D, you should not believe that this kind of quasi-scientific generalizations is to stop the authors of this decision or to stop the scientists from the second division. The authors mentioned here have provided a guarantee to them a large number of biologists and psychologists who are not executed against the outstanding reputation of serious research, and not of certificates that are approved in this fame. To mention here, for example, Galton and Ribot and Jean Rostan, though his situation is sometimes more unique.

Baqratna of the text below, and which tends towards the application of Mendel's laws on the movement of talent or the Queen musical, the reader himself can easily be exercised exercise exercises epistemology of cash. To deploy to some observations: The text speaks of "the inheritance of capacity," while Mendel's laws do not apply only to the inheritance of traits and characteristics and genetic traits, on the other hand, the concept of "musical talent" to fill Ballaiqinaat and ambiguity: Fajasih or characteristic and hereditary Kalklv or freckles or color of eyes, for example, is radically distinct from "capacity" is, because the theme does not accept the increase and not decrease. We can be good musicians more or less, and this property depends on the self-rule, while the particular attribute can appear or not appear in person. The criticism I can be directed to this text is that it presents a study without a subject on the one hand, and the similarity here with the laws of "Mendel" is more than doubtful, as long as the "capacity" does not appear or appear slightly in women, and that to respect the statistical distribution, Suppose in a certain number of "unknown musical ability," and is the least that can be said of what constitutes an appropriate hypothesis ad hoc. However, to be a convincing theory, they are not required to double the facts are verifiable truths and hidden, except when they are backed by a group of indirect assurances to them.

This study demonstrates fast how much is illusory and false extension of the theory realized from the field applied to the phenomena that can not interpret: The myth of the text in question and the reason is that "a mechanism transition is a mechanism is unknown." We can not as long as the genetic code of humanity is not known and their symbols is loose talk about the inheritance of mental capacity, and its own political interests, which are already and always conservative or reactionary (Scientists are people, like the others) can be moved outside the lure of scientific Khath. It is referred to is that the types of error and seduction this course contribute mostly in the refusal to acknowledge the problem within the inheritance of capacity, is the problem of a social nature, not biological.

• 9. Secularization alien to the concept of "The Queen musical."

"The study of the major families and families that belong to athletes, musicians, painters, provide scientific knowledge about the inheritance of capacity, but only if the intervention (....) A large group of genes.

A mechanism of this transition is unknown. "

C. Q. Desiree and automatic

Natural sciences (business oriented) Bordas 1968

Study curriculum

 3. Epistemology: the study curriculum

Criticism of curriculum and must understand this word, of course, the meaning of critical study, not libel or slander in the field of epistemology appears in two forms:

1. Picture philosophical more privacy: It is about the same now as for the endeavor of scientific in general, or the methodology of a particular scientific (where shows the philosopher from his point of view how the world engages his knowledge) and the position on the means of acquiring the know, where can Abstamologi specific, for example, described the activity of the world wording of the rational (as it demonstrates the central role of the mind in the selection and construction of scientific facts), or the wording of the trial (where will try then to prove that all substantive knowledge is derived from experience, from data concrete), the same way will take a position on the nature of knowledge. This type of epistemology, which disdains Alabstamologian some would call epistemology, comes from a theory of knowledge or Gnoséologie, and in this sense we regard Abstamologian those who call them "big players" in the classical philosophy such as Aristotle, Descartes, Kant and Husserl, and some contemporary Afbstamologian like Gaston Bachelard. Apart from the latter, we can say that the fault, which sometimes leads to consider them lightly by the so-called "Alabstamologian real" is the attempt to create a general theory of knowledge without any regard to the problems of partial raised within each field of knowledge in particular, which introduce them to this theory from early generalizations drawn from a special flag (for the natural history of Aristotle Mathematics for Physics for Descartes to Kant reason for Husserl). 2. Another picture above the scientific (using the concepts of the largest circulation of mainstream scientific concepts exclusive) is more specific: It is about the definition or the establishment of a curriculum is, and aimed for the world to guide research or make it illegal. This type of study is the fact that part of what we called "epistemological formative," while the first study, more inclined towards a theory of knowledge, linked to more Balabstamologia cash. However, a school full of Alabstamologian with stripes empirical positivism is composed mainly of regions (Vienna Circle Foundation in 1929 by Moritz Schleck) strained and are still struggling themselves in the drafting of the rules of logic (including the name came to logical positivism so closely with this power) to the logic is applicable to Total Science. Try standardization following the language of science, not science itself, of course, called "trend Alvezaawih" because it suggests the expression of biological concepts, and concepts of psychology and sociology, and other issues, the language of physics on the one hand, and impose perhaps on all science approach similar to the method of physics: If this is not their all scientists, this epistemology is really training at the level imposed by the scientific approach to science considers enjoying a certain legitimacy. Here we will give below two examples of these two types of epistemology as the study of the curriculum. For the first type of epistemology we will see how the curriculum can be described in the physical sciences in a manner wholly inconsistent by both Descartes and Newton.

• His will first start from the principles used to approach the results circumstantial tribal (founded on the intuition of any direct knowledge by the mind, not on experience),
• The second, which he liked to review, and without irony, in the apportionment of the rival high-Descartes to the rules to the four basic rules, so pray to the contrary, the possibility of extracting the total of the laws of the nature of sensory experiences, in order to climb so than even up to the general principles which govern it, ie following the approach inductive me. The Cartesian rationalism derived from the methodology of mathematics; In the natural sciences play principles known through intuition Alokseyoumat role, and the laws that can be inferred which is similar to the theorems. The Newtonian, and on the contrary, the curriculum of the science of nature is considered as if it were fundamentally different from mathematics, as long as the experiment by Newton, not intuition, that is supposed to lead our steps without the need to resort to intuition, the formulation of hypotheses: This is the meaning of the words of Newton's famous: "I do not make assumptions."

5. Deductive approach in the four rules.

"... Instead of this huge number of constituent principles of logic, I thought that I sufficiency of the following four principles, I am hoping I will take a decision in a firm and stable I will not be neglected even once noticing any of them.

The first is that I do not receive at all a thing as a right what I did not notice prima facie that as well, that is, I mean to avoid the rush and cling to the foregoing provisions, and not to enter the judgments only what is to my mind in the clarity and distinction I do not have them any room to put it into doubt.

And second, I swear that each and every one of the dilemmas that Ibgesha to a number of parts possible and necessary to resolve the best.

And third: to arrange my thoughts, things start with the simplest and easiest to know, and Otdrj to climb little by little until I get to see things more complex, but to impose an arrangement between things that do not precede each other, of course.

And last is that I do in all cases, reviews statistics and full public makes me confident that I have not overlooked anything. 'N these long strings of arguments simple and easy-to-back scholars of engineering used to gain access to the most difficult proofs, allowed me to imagine that all the things that can fall within the reach of human knowledge, rotate one picture, and that, if avoided, one that receives not one of them right as a right, and always maintained the order necessary for its conclusion from each other, it does not find those things away can not be seen, not hidden and is not possible detection. I did not find considerable trouble in the search for things to get started with, because I know from before initiation but the simplest and easiest things to know. When I saw that among those discussed by the truth in the sciences could not a non-athletes be guided to some of the evidence, that is, to some of the arguments certainty and self-evident, no doubt at all that this is not possible for them only the path of the things that treated her, and did not Oaml them the benefit of other but to accustom my mind tuning self-evident truths and the rejection of false arguments. "

René Descartes, 1637 article in the curriculum

Part II Translation: Jamil Saliba, Beirut 1970.

5. Bis

"For physics, I thought I do not know anything about it, if I did not know how to say things can exist, without the ability to demonstrate that it can not be found differently; that returned and reduced to the laws of mathematics is something possible."

René Descartes

Letter to Mersenne March 11, 1640.

6. Inductive approach in the four rules.

"The first rule: For the reasons should be considered only those which are necessary to explain the phenomena. Nature does not do any act in vain, and will be really trivial things to engage in an act by a large number of reasons, in the time that can happen when a smaller number of them.

The second rule: You must attribute the effects that are of the same kind always, and whenever possible, for the same reason. Thus, the process of respiration in humans and animals, and the fall of a pebble in Europe or America, and the light of day here [on earth] and the light of the sun, and the reflection of light on the earth and planets, are acts] must be attributed, respectively, for the same reasons.

The third rule: You must look to the characteristics of objects that do not accept old age does not decrease, which is possessed by all objects that can be tested and, as properties associated with each object in general. Can not know the properties of objects only through experience, and so we can look at it fairly general, the features in both objects, which can not suffer from attrition; because it is impossible to empty the characteristics of objects that can not be decreased. It also can not be opposed to experiments dreams, and should not be neglected symmetry in nature, which is always simple and similar to itself. The objects had to be extended not only known through the senses, and can not be felt in all objects (extension), but Ktaan or extension of a closely those that exist under our senses, we emphasize that this extension is linked to all the objects in general. We find that many of the objects solid: However, the hardness of total derived from the hardness of the parts, and so recognize this property, not only in the objects that have enabled us to our senses of testing, but we infer by the mind on the part of non-dividing are the parts can be a solid. Conclude the same way that all objects are not penetrate, because all objects that we touch is not acceptable, so look for the inability to break through as a property applies to all objects. All the objects that we know mobile, and distinguished a certain magnitude (we call it the power of inertia) are persistent and continue thanks to the move or sleep state. We conclude that all objects in general have these properties. Extension, hardness, inability to penetrate, mobility, inertia in all objects derived from the permission of the extension and stiffness and inability to penetrate, mobility and inertia parts: What we can deduce from it that all the parts accurate in all the objects are extended and solid, non-porous and mobile and copyrighted material of the strength of inertia, and this is the basis of all physics. And more also know by phenomena that can be parts of adjacent objects to be separated, and tell us the math on that can distinguish the parts of non-dividing and most smaller one from the other by the mind. We still do not know whether these parts distinct and non-split to accept segregation and separation by the forces of nature, but if it was true and through experience and one that one of these parts that Nainha unit are divisible suffered some kind of division dismissed or break the solid body whatever it is, can we conclude by this rule that are not parts of the divided subject to removal only, but the portions are divided divisible to infinity. Finally, and as long as the firm of experiments and astronomical observations that all objects near the earth's surface weight above the ground by the amount of the substance, that the moon weighs on the ground because of the amount of its substance, and that our sea weighing turn on the moon, and that all planets weigh on each other mutually , and comets weighing also on the sun, we can conclude according to the third rule that all objects swim mutually each other about each other, and this will be inferred thanks to the universal gravitation of objects drawn from the phenomena is stronger than that which we can deduce from the indivisibility of the breach: because it is not have any experience or any Note assure us that the objects is the ground-body non-porous, however, I do not like never to gravity [property] material objects, and I do not mean force inherent in the objects but the power of inertia, which is the force constant: instead of gravity decreases as we move away from Earth.

Rule four: In experimental philosophy, must be seen to the issues learned through induction, and in spite of anti hypotheses, as the issues are fully honest or rough, waiting to be confirmed by some other phenomena altogether, or tell us that they are subject to exceptions. This is because the hypothesis can not weaken the inference founded on extrapolation derived from the experience. I can not think but effective procedure to determine the truth, and I check the various methods that can be fabricated and explain the phenomena, except in the case that can not be listed by the census and all of these methods in a holistic and complete. The curriculum is real, you know, Intelligence had and query the properties of things, is deduced from the experiments. I told you that the theory proposed by, came to me not by inference [The issue is so because it is not differently], ie, not by reasoning simply the rejection of the presumption of antifreeze, but Bachtakkakha of experiments, where the finds them positively and directly. Therefore, the way it should be checked out, is to consider whether the tests that have been proposed already demonstrate the parts of the theory that explain the parts of virtue, which also follow the other experiments can be considered to be subjected to theoretical examination. . . This is because if the tests Ostdeiha incomplete and defective, you will not be difficult to explain and display their shortcomings, but if valid, and it is by those that demonstrate the theory itself, necessarily refer all objections objections are worthless. "

Isaac Newton: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

Book 3 and a message to Ooldenbrg July 1672

Mentioned by Robert Blance in: the experimental method and the philosophy of physics

Armand Coughlan 1969 pp: 99 102.

7. Vkerian have taken the big, Two approaches.

"I have been describing this fundamental distinction between the concepts and perceptions of science in both Descartes and Newton by Vontonal Fontenelle is then permanent secretary to the Academy of Sciences, and when it was in the process praise of Sir Isaac Newton, said:" It was between the two men are on opposite sides close relationships; Each of them was a genius of the first class, all of them were born to dominate other minds and to establish empires. Both saw the need for a skilled athlete transfer engineering to the field of physics, both founded on the Veziah Engineering (....). However, the one he wanted, and a bold leap, positioning at the source of everything, and becomes master of all first principles through some clear ideas and fundamental, and so does not need to get out of those principles to the phenomena of nature as results necessary for this descent. The other, which is the most shy and modest, he began walking up phenomena based on the principles about the unknown, and concluded that the mind as it is, he can give us the sequence of results. Which one starts to understand clearly to find the cause of what he sees or notices, the other may utter what he saw and noticed to find the cause of what he sees and notices. "

B. De Vontonal "praise the scientists," 1697

Indicated by c. And. Sharon: "from physics to human"

Mediations 1965. P. 47.

Hack is now an example of criticism of curriculum practice by scientists to establish their own flag and the definition of its subject, an example borrowed from the field of physiology. Claude Bernard criticizes the application of the experimental method used in the field of physics and chemistry on the biological facts, he explains how he first thought she Unlike predecessors, Bichat in particular, it considered the project of living phenomena as if they were physical chemical phenomena, even in the first moment at least, then determined in the same Now the limits and inadequacy of this approach which does not allow the interpretation and physiology studied, and no hierarchy of those jobs. and the report of the legality of the experimental method in biology, any license it to analyze and the dismantling of organic ingredients for the "composite physiologic" and then returned to their places and functions, based Claude Bernard contemporary approach to physiology, and thus knows the subject of this science in a new way.

8. The legitimacy and limits of the experimental method in physiology.

". . . The goal of the experimental method is constipation determinism in the phenomena, whatever the nature of these phenomena, or the vital metal. We know with certainty that what we call the inevitability of the phenomenon does not mean anything other than "why the actor" or "proximate cause" leading to the occurrence of phenomena, where we necessarily Accordingly, the conditions of existence of phenomena, those conditions that demand experienced treating the diversification phenomena. So we will see the previous interpretations of expressions similar to the concept of determinism, which summarizes all of the latter. Certainly, as we said earlier, that life does not require absolutely no change in the experimental scientific method, which must be applied in the study of physiological phenomena, which leads to the physiological sciences as well as the physicochemical you exactly on the same principles of discovery and research. But we must recognize, however, that determinism in the phenomena of life is not more complex, but also is at the same time, the inevitability of hierarchy consistently, and in a form that makes the phenomena physiological complex phenomena of the problem through a system of phenomena, the simple set each other, participate in achieving the goal teleological common, while the ultimate goal is to determine the physiological conditions of the first physiological phenomena and understand the natural Taalgaha, to absorb and, therefore, follow the various systems in Almikanezmat the most diverse in the animal organism (....). Have on the physiological and the doctor should not lose sight of the fact that membership of a living organism is unique; Valvezaaúa and chemical presence, who can not go outside the universe (the world) studying objects and phenomena alone and separately, without the need to append it dislikes the nature in its entirety. Physiological but which finds itself opposite of that is present outside of living organisms which it deems in its entirety, therefore, compelled to explain this harmony in this total, while he tries to be carried out to understand the mechanism inside of each of its elements. The result is the ability of the physical and chemical to reject any idea of finality in the facts that Alahzanha, while physiological finds itself forced to recognize Bgaúah harmonious and tribal governing body and the solidarity of all his actions and generating partial to each other. Therefore they must know very well that if we dismantled organisms isolated various components from each other, it is not only to simplify the empirical analysis, not as parts to be addressed separately. Indeed, in order to give the property to the physiological value and its true meaning, it should always be linked to the whole, and not to draw the final result only relationship of this property Btatheradtha within this total. Without a doubt, this sense of solidarity among the essential parts of living organisms is the payment of "Cuvier" to consider the application of the impossibility of experimentation on living organisms, because it separates the parts of the organization that must be kept together. In this sense, also denied some physiologists and other doctors who are called "vital", or are still deprived of experimentation in the field of medicine. The views of this course, which is not without right, is wrong with that in terms of general conclusions, which upset the progress of science significantly. "

Claude Bernard: Introduction to experimental method 1865

Study of the principles

 2. Epistemology: the study of principles.

1.2. Metaphysical principles:

Based on the principles of every science is a demonstrated, either implicitly or explicitly, and accepted by the world's axioms: the first concerns of epistemology and cash are subject to these same principles to the examination of cash.

To clarify this issue we have chosen the following example due to the relative simplicity, which is the study of movement. Physicist in this field can be referred to senior worlds are: Aristotle (384 322 BC. M) and whose influence continued in Europe until the 16th century. And Galileo (1564 1642), which is considered the founder of classical mechanics. Will show how to read the versions in its own theories based on concepts and perceptions of nature beyond the metaphysical framework of their themes Bamomcitha pure science.

A. Aristotle's physics or modes:

The movement of local (= leads something to change the place) for Aristotle, first of all, bug house (= live inside the body which is in motion), and this is what distinguishes his theory from the theory of classical physics, which was occupied with a description of phenomena, too busy searching for reasons: I have decided to Aristotle that all things tend and tend to their own "private place" (= the original place), and so heavy objects tend to the bottom (ground), and light objects tend towards the top (the sky). And objects that do not exist in the natural place is not heavy or light only by force (which could go up if the light or down if it is heavy), and are not already well (will not be able to achieve normal), but when you join its place of origin.

Besides this reason self-movement (= associated with the nature of things and the essence and the essence, and here they relate to the field if necessary), characterizes Aristotle bug foreign (= non-related autonomy of things): Fodaah heavy objects is falling, objects and light is emerging, not only the status derived from an obstacle hampering natural movement (for example, can be kept suspended by a statue of a column... etc.). The cause of accidental movement are those that exclude this constraint, or those opposed to the natural movement (verb launch a stone and left it down or throw it in the space).

We will notice by reading the following text to the theory derived from common sense, which come with it to explain all phenomena observed in a coherent, based entirely on several principles:

- A fundamental principle (substance) to attribute the reason for the movement of some intrinsic properties of objects: Valogesam fall because they are heavy. And does not specify this principle only every physics of Aristotle, but also all the Aristotelian philosophy. The fundamental property of self or explain everything: a cool marble because of the "coolness", Al-Abdul because of "bondage." . . And so on.

- The principle of teleological: thanks to him we consider all things, whether natural or artificial, are present in order to achieve a particular purpose (= target): fruit and paper to protect the fruit of the saw to publication. . And so on.

- The principle of Kosmologi: (= defines the look of the universe), according to this principle, everything in its place and function of the nature specified once and permanently. Thus, the movement is conceived as a bridge between two or two forms of existence: the crossing of existence by force to exist already, and everything for Aristotle there is in place and to come back.

2. Objects up or down according to the natural propensity.

"What to look for moving objects light and heavy objects toward its natural place? .. The reason for this phenomenon is that the heavy and light, of course, are the specific substance, one below and one above. 'N objects light or heavy force and in various forms: (....) The body in the liquid state is not a priori only a light force. In the gaseous state is not the case but also in the same file (because it can be transmitted without him and rise), but if they removed this obstacle, we will see Vgnna light already, as long as there will be at the top. So, too, how the force has already become as how to become Queen of the knowledge to know in case if there were not opposed and the quantity transformed in the same way.

The displacement resistance barrier of the movement is in a sense the cause of the movement, which in other words, is not, for example: It undermines a column or snatch weight of the bottle air in the water is not only a cause accidental movement, similar to the fact that the pitcher is the reason for the movement of the latter, and not the wall that reflects the movement.

None of these objects do not move on its own, and this is obvious, it (objects) has in itself the principle of the movement is not effective, but edgy, not for the movement or production, but to receive it. Since all objects the issue of movement is moving either the movement arising from the violence added to normal, or the movement of natural, and as long as objects first animated all by some strange reason about, while the objects of seconds, whether moving or not moving on their own, moving is also by external cause and the movement of objects occur so light and heavy objects, which is movement in the assets of the illness generated and actors to its weight or lightness, or illness which displaces the obstacle and barrier without movement, every movement, then some extraneous reason. "

Aristotle's Physics VIII, 42829.

Read the book: "Aristotle's First Teacher"

B. Galilei or physics quantities:

We have seen with how Aristotle could lead to erroneous principles of false knowledge, it is interesting to stand on it can sometimes be formulated scientific law correctly from the principles are the most susceptible to conflict and challenge.

And Hack an example: in the text pro, explains Galilei (1564 1642) how he discovered that objects fall according to the movement accelerated regularly, this discovery is the result of Note Empiricism (= based on experience) (anyone can see with his eyes that whenever fallen body Nowhere is the louder, the more speed when accessing the largest) of the hand, and as a result of a logical conclusion on the other hand, from a metaphysical principle says that God or nature, "like" ease and simplicity. This is proof that science, and even the best science (Galilei is the founder of modern physics), can not dispense with the assumptions.

We will notice that the principle upon which the physics Galilih is the same now the source and the source of discovery, and limited draw the boundaries of knowledge: it is the source of the discovery that Galileo derived from the expression sport for the physical laws in general, the extent of knowledge; that this principle prohibits prohibits clarify the complex phenomena and the vehicle ( I think that the planets Galilei draw circular orbits on the grounds that the department and the closed curved line are the simplest).

Ž3. Like the simple laws of nature.

"The thinking, or if we, the Galilei mental trend is not purely mathematical, it is a physical athlete. Galileo was launched without a doubt, preconceived idea, but a depth of natural philosophy, which is that the laws of nature are the laws of sports, and real Iggsm sports. Is it not also the Galilei space between experiment and theory. The theory, the equation does not apply to external phenomena, it is "saving" these phenomena, it reflects the essence. Nature does not answer at all except on the questions formulated in the language of sports; because nature is the Kingdom of measurement and order, and if the test leads so (as someone who leads you pull your hand) trial, mental and reasoning, it is in the trial practice tightly, that is, on the issue of well-developed, reveal the nature essence and deep understanding that can not only intellectual Arif matters.

Galileo tells us that stems from experience, but it is not "experience" exclusive to the senses, that's a given that he has to or matched with a suitable definition of who is looking for, it is not something other than laws Alosfian legally falls and signs which are in possession of in advance.

Galilei also tells us that submissive by the idea of simplicity (....) The simplicity and realism, so to speak, an internal match with the essential nature of the phenomenon studied.

This phenomenon is real is the movement, and Galilei did not know how to talk, and not how, under the influence of any force occurs acceleration (....) Whatever it was, the issue is related to the phenomenon of realistic phenomenon caused by nature and realistic, which means that they occur because of something that happens in time.

The movement is above all the phenomenon of time, they occur in time and from time try Galilei to know the essence of the movement accelerated, not by a factor of distance traveled; distance is not only the result, not only a traffic accident, is not only a sign of the substantial truth of time.

We can not, a fact that, imagine the time, every graph will reach almost always represent a risk engineering exaggerated. Nevertheless, efforts Almsnod of the world perceived by the idea and the people who are for the property of continuity in time, can, without risk, to symbolize the distance. The acceleration of the movement will be the regular permission will also be a relationship with time.

The fact that Galileo was able to, or knew, how beyond all representation Tgsidi the pattern of a movement or acceleration (force v attractive... Etc.) enabled him to maintain a balance in these narrow limits as the border blade, or it is in the act of movement meets each of the factual and sport " .

Alexander Querry: Studies Jalalah

Rr: 57 156

Galilei Telescope

2.2 Principles Almitodouluggih:

Not the principles of metaphysics alone, the guiding principles of scientific thought; The latter needs in various natural areas where achieved its practices, to the guiding principles for Ibhathomouhdh for his theories, and not these principles are often only representations and perceptions metaphorical and allegorical spectrum more or less to a group of phenomena. Thus, for example, was able to power to achieve decisive progress when it is configured to "represent" all phenomena, electrical phenomena similar to those derived from fluid mechanics, and also, as indicated in the following text, taken physiology approach is scientifically true when it was abandoned for the image that was considered the jurisprudence that the blood in body "watering" of living organisms, to pass and move to a more fertile metaphor is the "session" vessels.

Galilei Telescope

These routers more general scientific thought in the same now yeast-generating discoveries, but it can reveal the longer-term obstacle to development: Among the tasks of epistemology, as is the case with philosophers and scientists also detected these obstacles and make them subject to criticism and examination.

4. Of irrigation to the session [blood].

". . . Within any perspective, the teleological or mechanical, biological Eetmouka inside first, the concepts employed initially to analyze the functions of tissues and organs, or organs, was charged to Ashaouraa the importance of pragmatism and technical purely humanitarian.

For example, we find that the blood and sap (water plant) hold like water, and running water in the canals irrigate the land, permission must be exercised in both the blood and sap turn the irrigation. That Aristotle is the one who corresponded between the distribution of blood from the heart and the process of watering the garden through the pipes. Jalaan did not think differently. However, watering the ground means the disappearance of water into the ground and here is exactly [Atgesm] the main obstacle to intelligence is associated with the idea of the session [blood]. All of the credit attributed to Harvey for being able to experience the interdependence veins of the hand that is Ahtkanaa above the point of constriction a proof test of a blood circulation, but this experience has already been year 1603 of Taf Fabrice D'Aquapendente It is very possible that they were in the earlier date learned from this that the role of the officer (as amended) for the valves veins, but I think they impede blood pool in the limbs and descending parts of the body. What is added by Harvey for the sum of observations carried out before him is the addition of simple and basic at the same date, are as follows: in one hour pumping left ventricle in the body through the aorta amount of blood equivalent to three times the body weight, it is where it comes from and where it can spend the amount of such of blood? .. On the other hand, if we have opened a vein certain, the body will spill to a vacuum, and there is generated the idea of the closed orbit is possible, "says Harvey, I wondered if everything was not capable of being interpreted by the circular motion of blood." The time, and refusing to experience interdependence, Harvey reached to make sense of a coherent and consistent on all observations and experiments. We see how the discovery of blood circulation is the first, and can be substantial, replacement of the concept or perception were carved to make accurate observations "coherent", that the observations made ​​on living organisms at various points, in different moments, replacement of the concept or visualization, is related with irrigation , which were brought directly to the biology of the technical field of humanity. The realistic visualization of the biological turnover presupposes the exclusion of property mismatch in the perception of technical watering. "

As. Kang'elam "knowledge of life"

Definition of epistemology

 1. Definition of epistemology:

Means epistemology Achtqakie "the study of science", a new innovation as a branch of the branches of philosophical studies, and it seems that there is no need for this topic; In our times is the provision of education for each one of us as a clear, organized and consistent results that impose the same we as facts, and if we accept without examination , Such a definition of science, we can not understand why it is imperative as a science subject for study; law of falling objects, once a mathematical equation expressing it, and when it was ascertained experimentally by (a Newton's free fall), so sacrificing a general law, it After that does not require any messages or other research.

However, science does not give us except in courses that are not necessarily pedagogical Dougmatiqih the character of certainty and objectivity divorced always: there are no scientific theory based on the principles formulated in an accurate and consistent among themselves, and not interested in knowing whether it was possible to know all the Methods of discovery and experience without a previous criticism irrelevant to the merits. Finally, the results, which draws the world of scientific research is, as well as the generalizations made ​​by the basis of the discovery is made, is always far from being an institution, and that for these three levels of scientific research occupies first epistemology itself, which can be defined as a critical study the principles of science and methods and their results: "A n find out the real books Gaston Bachelard is the light cast always, somewhere in some of the shadows" ["composition of the scientific spirit," p. 13], these shadows are used epistemology cash to discover and uncover it.

However, there is a second form of epistemology can be called simply to epistemology formative Constitutive: as the work's cash epistemology does not start only when the ends of science, it is not the work of philosopher of science in particular, as it announces itself also during the drafting process, the same theory, the epistemology formative is significantly associated with scientific practice: it was not possible for example, that Galilei formulates the law of falling objects unless, in parallel, has criticism Aristotelian concept of "gravity" and also the foundations of contemporary dynamics based on the concept of a new movement.

The critical study of science, epistemology, and they represent, are far from being purely negative, and lead us to doubt; It shows a contribution is necessary and as a work for the glory of the scientific work.

Based on the above, and it was said, we see that the epistemology belong simultaneously to both philosophy and science: it belongs to the philosophy as the study of thought and scientific research (the philosopher here notes the work of the world to know the specificity of scientific knowledge and what distinguishes it from common sense), and belong to the science as a claim to a scientific study of science, and the ability to achieve stringent similar to the rigorous science on the development of concepts and methods of reasoning, if not the same objective science itself, as well as a willingness to be a criterion for the validity of concepts and methods, but the results also.

Though this diversity in the concerns of epistemology formed often point collisions between philosophers and scientists, they are allowed to realize that epistemology is not Mbgesa united or one, but it is a Study of the great diversity in view of the diversity of Mqterpath: The proof of this is the basing of Investigation is very different and often scientific practice procedures; Would not surprise us that the encyclopedia of epistemology can include different titles, such as a "logic of scientific discovery," "philosophical foundations of physics," "science and society", "my contribution to the analysis of the explicit knowledge", "elements of the history of mathematics." . . Etc..

We see by this simple census that polymorphic Study of epistemology, and that depending on the need to provide that "logic", "the philosophy of knowledge or theory of knowledge", "Sociology," "Psychology", "date". . . Etc..

Senlams in our research that all these approaches, and the importance of each and every one of them will be judged by the extent of fertility, it is appropriate to single out a special place on the unit of the history of scientific thought: this topic which is the Study of the interview, not only responds to a passion for facts or ideas of the past, but also, often, the objectives of exploration and discovery, and pedagogy.

Of discovery: for we see very well and often climb the course of history scholars and ages for the detection and / or to confirm the principles of knowledge, or to find support for this historic principles (it is the founder of Noam Chomsky linguistics rational).

Of pedagogy, because of what is taught in science is not only often a result of trial and errors corrected.

If it is not possible to reduce the value of what he calls the c. Bachelard (science teacher), which can be students, thanks to its simplicity and Sourith wonderful often, economy, long stages that were on the flag that travels to completed, it will be fruitful that learners such as teachers can provide science does not as a set of substantive results and final absolute available from the fact that not a historical unknown, the stupidity of the first centuries is the case alone, staffed with early detection, but as it is in reality; any research leads to error than leads to the truth, that truth which was never completed, and that it overcome obstacles are constantly renewed.

On the other hand, has the power to clarify the history of science, research, scientific Cllacchavat, is always associated with a specific vision of the world historically, and that vice versa, does not show scientific revolutions never only as a result of the herds belonging to these perceptions about the world itself.

Here we will try to represent these different dimensions of epistemology.

1. The need to epistemology:

Science is not completely positive.

If the epistemology of cash, as is the epistemology formative, today seems a necessity, and if the scientists, as well as philosophers, since the science exists, conscious of them or not, did not stop the exercise; it is because the knowledge of the positive, ie, those that look at them as if they were final and can not be touched, much as it can not also be in one day is questionable or rebuild on the new rules, is far from being all the scientific knowledge that is not a field is closed, but rather on the contrary, the field is open widely in front of refutation and refutation.

The Robert Blance expresses par excellence for this idea in the following text, and content ourselves with adding two examples simple for this text: At the end of the last century, has been subjected Newtonian mechanics to the question by the experiments and the theory of certain seem the least contradictory together, to the extent that led to the creation of the so-called historic the "crisis of physics." We know from the other hand, that the whole 19th century was characterized by relentless Besraabla between contradictory theories about evolution, and has not been abandoned for one of these theories have only recently the theory Allamarkiyh for the other theory, any theory of Darwinism. Should not lead us these examples some pessimistic radical, Bescaleh in a sense, pessimistic displaces about science the possibility of "knowledge confirmed:" The discovery or a scientific theory are not and never fully disbelieving, when tested adequately through time and experience, but always are subject to the process of re-modeling and configuration is the inclusion, in their capacity as special knowledge, in the sum of a wider body of knowledge, and important Afbstamologia are also contributing to the reconstruction of knowledge.

Πthere is no objective knowledge completely.

". . . The science itself is far from being scientifically completely, once was the word means objective knowledge tightly, do not let out any room for objection. We do not here allude to the many problems that have not yet been resolved, and that form for each historical era, the field of scientific research. We want to say that according to the method itself, which puts out some of the world's problems and address them, he finds himself immersed, willingly or unwillingly, in the questions on visible characteristics and features of the philosophical. There is no unless the issue was Tshuva for an example of what is known "positive" fully and completely, aware of a fact from which all corresponding with the nature of philosophical knowledge come are about scientists qualified to a genuine consensus, science does not remain in doubt and for him, but problems instant later, which can not be solved by methods that will keep quiet any dispute, through the application of the principle: to count and note! ".

Robert Blance: epistemology

 

What is science? ..

 Scientific activity of particular were not always has, not force, and do not spread that know them today. Geographically, the back of the flag in the basin of the Mediterranean and Western Europe, did not extend to parts of the globe other only recently (19th century) and disproportionately. Historically , we can say that two decades of his birth: it first appeared, and in particular, in the form of logic and mathematics and astronomy, since the old one. The science that went by the peoples of the Mediterranean basin to a certain degree of completeness impressive was purely speculative sciences, in the sense that society as a society in Athens for example is not any science to this tendency to the service of any technical progress, it was her job, recreation, and education citizens of the unemployed by giving them a certain perception of the world. The back of the flag later in the 17th century in Western Europe in the midst of competition with the pattern of trade, but more different this time for the former: where, as the light is far from nature contemplative, he tried, he could, collecting knowledge saturated to the needs of the process. This is why the science that emerged from this cradle second, radically different, in terms of subjects and curricula for science contemplative exclusive: it will try to see the world diagnosed physical (in the 17th century was the "physics" means all the natural sciences), and will apply the experimental method to accomplish this the task. And not about the absolute, of course, claim that all research had practical ends, and not all findings can be absorbed Kakchavat derived from the technology needs, however, a science born in the 16th century were left ignored by the minds of the pure, gave her enslavement other opportunities for free philosophizing, but has become a topic of interest to note bourgeois or merchants who, though they did not exercise their own, but his left to specialists, they dreamed to own the world by him, as they started it actually through their economic activity. As human beings so Descartes, science, since then, the targeted "Emtemlkin made ​​us masters of nature." But the renewal of science in the 17th century not only does it open in front of the flag another continent: the continent of "physics", and also contributed to gradually and in a spirit of expediency, the use of science in the ancient meditative of mathematics and logic in the study of nature. This is why when we speak today about contemporary science, we ignore the achievements of ancient science and the science of the Middle Ages, which can not be regarded acquis without meaning, to point out, we mean essentially science Alombriqi or experimental, these Alnatan who are pointing in the same now to the subject (Nature) For the approach (beta test) scientists (1).
The science of objective knowledge creates relationships between phenomena College and necessary to allow the prediction of the results (Almalolat) that we are able to control experimentally, or to determine their cause through observation. To explain the limits of this definition:
1] that the science knowledge: from the point of view only this course, similar to what we call science: empirical knowledge, ie knowledge of the institution on the immediate experience which is often wrong (fire burning wool retains heat .. etc), technical knowledge (the art of making vessels and fire etc. ..). But the comparison stops at this point: the knowledge of empirical as well as technical knowledge Tthdeddan by the immediate needs that are responding to it (you know the stars in order to guide me cite my car for the purpose of movement ... etc.), while were not of scientific knowledge at all, and the sense of a particular application IM: It is indeed a cultural and intellectual sincere, even if it is established to a very specific process applications. Certain scientists have been able to for example the study of shells in order to improve cost-effectiveness of artillery pieces, but they were required to draw general laws valid for all objects ejected. Have used these laws in the post of party men, artillery, but, also, by the manufacturers, and more recently by those interested in the launch of landfill space we find that science, and perhaps this is the strongest reason of his birth in the business community, it is assumed division of labor: it is incompatible with the Almaraftin empirical and technical procedures in the intellectual as well as exclusive material Mvsoltan exclusive from each other in science and technology, and the persons engaged in these actions are themselves separated from each other and are divided into scientists and technicians.
2] The scientific knowledge of objective knowledge or tend towards objectivity: it is represented in the cases (laws) and / or Onsagh of issues (theories) are required, and in the same time, to respond to the eligibility criteria (logical coherence of procedure for issue or a pattern of cases) and the standards of truth (correspondence between the case and the facts). These two types of standards (especially the second criteria) or trying to separate independence from all the self-esteem. Thus eliminating the science, not just the issues of language or dialect poetry which contains an internal contradiction ("This student of average intelligence that he belonged to the middle of a modest average" or "land Kbertqalh blue"), but also contradictory with other issues ("the sun is the center of the universe They do not move "is the issue is consistent with the following case:" The sun revolves around the earth "), but also so that issues that have been refuted by experience or observation (" nature fear the vacuum "is a case that has been refuted by experience). And satisfying these two conditions science can claim to objectivity and to obtain approval (consensus), the scientific community (the community). Then, much as it absorbs body of social science (by total Alonsagh and educational systems) for the entire community. This latter observation demonstrates that objectivity of scientific knowledge is not collected immediately and directly, it is a matter that can be owned gradually, as a result of the amendment successive errors, and audit and ongoing Alarhav of the theories. Science is always left in some of those areas where prey is easy to self: not the objective, then, a mobile essential (2) of scientific knowledge, it is in some sense, the hard core of science, which is derived from the vicinity of a given probability and uncertainty ... etc.: it does not belong to what is object, because it becomes an item and be.
Characteristic of the other set a flag in the event of a conflict with common sense (knowledge of the vernacular) is to be using the concepts of a single meaning, make the scientific knowledge of objective knowledge: Fbtard scientific concepts, in this regard, with the concepts of linguistics (the concepts of language traded) is characterized by being not, or trying to not have only one meaning is selected by the world, and to cover the total of phenomena or relations, while the concepts of linguistic ambiguous nature: it covers several groups of phenomena, and are subject to sliding meanings and distortions, for example, or the thread is unfit to ideas. The concept of inertia for example, in scientific language refers to a property apply to all solid objects, and only them alone, according to this concept, the body left to remain unchanged in the case of Allahrkh, or on the move permanent if he was not anything to change his movement. And vice versa in the language of the circulation, as unemployment is a lack of movement, or its resistance (the force of inertia), and can pull this concept to the objects and lives together, to the extent that it sometimes becomes synonymous with stagnation and apathy. Clearly see, therefore, that we can not establish any objective knowledge from perception lingual of inertia, because it is not there any joint relationship between the inertia of the young girl one who becomes unconscious it, and inertia Mr. "Dupont", who refuses to leave his chair to practice the washing of dishes, household, or the inertia of social prevents Representatives Djiskardin to do the necessary reforms. The scientific concept, on the contrary, it does not allow anything, at least during the construction of each mechanics of solid objects.
3] study the phenomena of science: and this wording does not mean things or facts that can be observed in any human being around him, but we mean things or the specific facts, and selected, made ​​by scientists. Valkimia, for example, not considering running tap water or water Sidi Harazim, but studying the chemical compound H2O, and physicist who wants shown by the law of free fall of objects is not interested in suicide, falling from a window (for people), in order to limit the interest and attention in the study of Lagouira metal rolling above the diagonal, while the ornithologist studying the behavior of birds lithogenes tribal and indexed, and classified by morphological and ecological criteria ... etc..
4] assesses science faculty relations and necessary: ​ ​and so ignores the special cases and partial, and is only interested in phenomena which always occur in specific circumstances. The relations established between the occurrence of phenomena and the conditions and causes that lead to the occurrence is necessary in the sense that the phenomenon can not not occur when the conditions are met and their occurrence. The relations derived in this way with the adjective "law." And we'll see after that scientific laws are the laws of certain descriptive

Pure, while the other laws are the laws of causality.
5] can be the science of prediction from the established laws: and here we must distinguish clearly between the activities and the possibilities of science in the field of prediction and prophecies of fortune-tellers and speculation the practice with all kinds of illusions party vendors and quacks. The scientific prediction is the same now more effective and more limited than prediction or divination insight: Predicting already assumed full control in the process of what, in the sense to know what the cause and what effect, and as a result of this knowledge available to an absolute advantage. For example, can accurately predict the eclipses of the infinite cases as in the case of the trajectories of spacecraft. If the predictions of climate (meteorology), which is not as bad as claimed by some not included in anything the weather perfect (forecaster out) for interrupted the weekly or grand, it is due only to the complexity and interaction between the phenomena that we do not know well always, and the difficulty of observed extension and widening necessary. On the other hand, is characterized predict or speculate based on astrology or reading on a cup of coffee not completely effective, because it does not assess any necessary relationship between cause and effect. If it does not predict the final (where we can predict the death of a political prognosis is better than the marriage of a star of stars Tarab), the confidence we have in this forecast is equal to zero.
Thus, thanks to the objectivity of science, thanks to the absolute necessity of the relations that would be built, and forecasts made ​​by, and thanks also to humility and caution accompanying each issue of its issues is to know the nature of the natures of other different types of other knowledge, whether true or false.

1: Characteristics of scientific knowledge:
Science and opinion: first opinion.

Not science knowledge is different from the ones that give us their opinion only (or knowledge of the vernacular), but it can not be found, too, as was explained by strongly Gaston Bachelard in all its work, but fraught with break epistemological with the view; knowledge of scientific claims by producing knowledge is positive, denying semi prior knowledge and, for Bachelard, the scientific knowledge is always a paradox [different view of the prevailing opinion] assert itself against prejudging.
So you'll have trouble, depending on the problem of Bachelard, we avoid placing erroneous for the conflict between scientific knowledge and personal opinion (sense of self), which promises the philosophical tradition on the solution by resorting to "Thiathethusna" or introduction to Aristotle the Great "I do not know but what is entirely"; It comes here Babstamologih childish reduced Rada of scientific knowledge to the public, to the concept, separated from the framework of the perceived world, which is arbitrary; Vtacisa on epistemology, such as this course can not be formed for any science except mathematics and logic, as long as the concepts of rejects Alombriqi modern science: that is, those related to quantity and measurement, for example, excludes excluding Valthiathethus Alturmomitr (thermometer).
If we want the definition of science in connection with the opinion already, you should give to the latter is meaningless idea, personal self, but rather the meaning of the idea received; it is not science, or is no longer from his struggle against the Living, but the demands of wrestling, permanent and non-appeasement of ideology.
In anything different, then the flag of the first opinion in this way? .. The first opinion, honest he or false, has never been a catalyst only by the social need: The notion that in certain coastal areas bring westerly winds rain and storms, is the idea of responding to the vital necessity of farmers to maintain the productivity of farming, and the sailors to know if They can sail without risk, and the same is mentioned for the idea that the shellfish marine irritant aphrodisiac, it is an idea of their meaning only as evidenced by, for example, several paintings in the community Filamanda upscale in the 17th century where the attention was great result arising from gorging These molluscs more attention Balsirorh that lead to this result. The first opinion, looking for the result, for Ma'lul, while assessing the relationship of science. Did not Bachelard, then right in saying that the first opinion can not be right, even if it was the right chance and the basis of the facts, "The first view is the right always wrong." The science is busy and keen indeed to legitimize its provisions and Athbatadth without interest the results and the effects of their contents, and the opinion, he is on the contrary, does not care about the interpretation of the phenomenon is merely to decide its existence, and does not care only benefit that can accrue to them. We will see later that it can be summarized conflict between science and the first opinion in the following words: Looking for reasons of science actors in the first opinion, while headed directly towards the teleological reasons.
If we want to estimate and measure the importance of the rupture epistemological caused by science, we can ourselves that the meaning of the reform of the educational system called the reform "Happy" [in France] in the field of higher education: this reform tends, in the field of primary education, secondary to replacement of experiences cognitive science, accused of being hard to come by, sullen, dry, and is open to life, allegedly useful knowledge (as if that scientific knowledge is not true as well) and directly, as tends to compensate for the scientific explanation of the phenomena of practical experiences savoir faire. In this field, which primarily concerns us, we turn again Meshaal Bachelard, science does not allow the waiver of the first opinion in order to absorb a scene that settled science patiently.

(1) the right of opinion, always wrong.

"The science needs to completion, as in its principle, opposed to the launch of view. If it happened to him at a certain point of view that makes the position a project, it is for the purposes other than those that base opinion, is always of the opinion makes a wrong position. The opinion is thinking badly, but he does not think: it translates to the knowledge of the practical needs, and select the objects from the returns for the same impedes the practical knowledge. Can not establish anything on the opinion as it must first be destroyed, it is the first obstacle to be overcome, for example, is not enough to modify it in certain points, and keep it as a form of morality temporary, temporary slang as knowledge. The scientific spirit prevents us from taking an opinion on the issues we do not understand and we can not clearly formulated. You should know first and foremost how to present problems. Whatever we say about life, the problems do not put on their own, and this meaning is exactly that marks the true scientific spirit; All the knowledge for the scientific spirit is the answer to a question. If there is no question, there can be no scientific knowledge. 

 
"Declares the scientific progress always looking for a break, for herds of eternal knowledge between colloquial and scientific knowledge, and so whenever we dealt with a sophisticated note, this note is Alktaea by itself, carries a feature of the day.
To give to the problem of scientific progress philosophical horizon, we must examine closely some of the objections formulated by the proponents of cultural continuity (....).
One of the objections the natural supporters of cultural continuity requires continuity of history; So long as we review the longevity of the facts, we think easily the possibility of revival of accidents in the continuity of time, and we give no attention to the overall history recipe unity and continuity of a book (....).
The Alastmrarien anxious to think of assets, they are interested in searching for the first elements of knowledge; scientific progress occurs very slowly, and shows that they are slower and more sustained. As the flag slowly comes out of the body of vernacular knowledge, they believe in the possibility of having to continue to the final certainty of knowledge between the vernacular and scientific knowledge. On balance, this is the basic sources of epistemology developed by Alastmrarien: as long as the slow beginnings, the kinds of progress continues. Therefore, the philosopher does not go away, it is thought that no point of experiencing new times where the burst of the forms of scientific progress with each bomber necessarily traditional epistemology (....).
Another way to disguise the cuts in the scientific developments in the rates is due to the anonymous crowd of servants; where loves to claim that the developments were "in the air" when the time a man [of science] genius. And thus taken into account the "atmosphere" and "impacts." The more we are far from the facts, as was easy to call "effects", which urges non-stop for the assets entrenched in dimension, they are passed through the ages and continents. Is that the concept of effect this dear to the philosophical thought has no significance in achieving the facts and discoveries in the bosom of contemporary science. The workers [in laboratories] meet without doubt, without doubt, cooperate in research, and now are teams and schools, but the genius of laboratories are at the same time on the exchange and renewal; and self-criticism to the laboratory workers refute aspects of the multi-everything that rise from the "influence "(....) It is a description of the scientific thought as the thought is directed inside the dogmatic truth is not discussed, and the practice of psychology cartoon is obsolete, as the fabric of the history of science today is the fabric of time for arguments, and evidence that intersect it is also the [resulting from] opportunities interruptions.
A third type of objections borrowed by supporters of cultural continuity from the field of biology; So long as we believe in the continuation of general knowledge and scientific knowledge, we are working to retain and make the issue of strengthening binding to us, and we want to extract from the common sense, slowly and kindness, the origins and principles of scientific knowledge , and dislike of violence "within the common man." Zvi curricula initial extend our, as in moments of fun, hours of indoctrination fertile, and we hope to keep the tradition of science first, science simple, and make it our duty to engage the student in the rigidity of knowledge first. Must be reversed so a critique of culture of primary Vnlj that the Kingdom of scientific culture difficult and complex .
Here is a case of interruption can not be erased easily call the relative trend is simple: it is simple and easy chemistry suddenly become difficult and complex. It did not become complicated for us all, not only for the philosopher, but more difficult in itself. Historians of science will not be accepted without doubt be described scientific culture as the culture of our time especially difficult. They would object that, during the movement of history were all forms of progress difficult, and philosophers will reiterate that our children learn in school today, and easily ask what a huge effort from the geniuses of the times of unique art. But this relative realism and intuitive not only do the absolute highlight attribute to the difficulty of the physical sciences and chemical contemporary when we had to get out of the Kingdom of the initial elements. "

As. Bachelard: "material rationality"
French university publications, 1972.
Pp. 213-207.

Classification of sciences

 2 diversity of science: the problem of classification.

We now examine the limit of science in its unity, but the dispersion of the steady science compels us to ask the same now about the relationships among them are in the aggregate, and the differences that are opposed to each other.

The classification of science is, then, to begin with, the need for epistemological. To publish here two examples of historical illustrate this need: in the beginning of the twentieth century, questioned the athletes on the status of Mbgeshm, especially about his relations or the absence of such relations) with reality, and ended their research to create mathematics Okseyoumah based on logic, for some, the premise of deductive entirely for others. In the same era, physicists asked for their side of the existing relations between the Almikrovezia and Almacrovezia, and opened the door of this conflict is not over yet truly among the two schools of positivism and realism. We see, then, that the need to identify sites of science in their relations to each other, the need to classify any of Sciences.

However, any classification of the phenomenon of ideological orientations secret or hidden.

It's not only try those that target either confirm the stop flag or a group of science on other sciences, or the establishment of standards to allow either to prove the legality of knew what was completely unknown until that moment, and either exclude one or several of the science of the honor of scientific research. The classification will be given certain special honor for physics, while the other will target the integration of classification psychology or sociology within the body of science, these two flags, which were not always viewed Kaalim, classify else will try to exclude history and psychology of science. . . And so on.

Can be summarized the criteria for classification in three: it can be classified as science either by subject matter (for example, distinguish experimental science image: logic and mathematics, natural sciences: physics, chemistry, biology.... Etc., and Human Sciences: Psychology, Sociology... Etc.) . Or according to their curricula (for example, the distinction between science hypothesis deductive: mathematics and logic, and science note: astronomy, botany, ethnology.... Etc., and the experimental sciences: physics, biology, psychology... Etc.) and finally by its status (for example, discrimination in between science taxonomic (Taksinomak): Zoology, Mycology.. etc., Science inductive Physics pre-classical, and perhaps today's sociology Alombriqi and analytical psychology, science deductive: classical physics, biology, contemporary... etc., and science Alokseyoumah: Mathematics and physics contemporary). This classification latter takes into account the developments of science, which is considered a whole, a certain sense, as if approaching from the form "full" of mathematics; words put Okseyoumat (are in place for science empirical naturally from the experience, especially during the phase inductive) This Alokseyoumat that conclude them by procedural rules all the phenomena that we want to explain it.

Whatever the criterion used, we see how it emerges from all these categories the idea of hierarchy, and giving value to science given at the expense of other disciplines, and this is also evident for the classification according to the results, which wins the workout (the character of the rejected apparently categorically and arbitrarily Science certain established itself as a science astronomy given of nature), and also for the classification according to positions which gives the physics property of excellence for his worth in the field of Alsourna, and this is also true even if it is a more insidious for the classification by subject, who lives a chapter radically between mathematics and logic on the one hand, and all sciences that have an Ombriqi the other hand, the latter so arranged according to their ability to use language, image, and thus has the property quite similar rating for the property according to situations.

In the following text, criticizes Robert Blance different categories of science:

4. Apportionment of Science

"Science has been, in the rapid dispersion, combined into large groups, according to a specific involvement in the issues and points of view or in the curriculum (....).

The distinction between abstract science and science diagnostic (....) Can not be introduced only Ktmiaz paints a binomial ideal, which unfold in the range of all the sciences. It was on Spencer who adopted this division to cram a group of science "abstract diagnosed," but what if we open box Khath, except that all the science is forced to enter it; because the science most diagnosis requires certain perceptions, which requires abstraction, and there are no Science is also totally devoid lost all contact with the diagnosed who are part of these sciences; Even when science turns to a purely symbolic and image, they are based on this intuition of Personal tags, instead of a double division, we find ourselves rather a process of constant evolution. Have had to say so also, and equally for the distinction between science and deductive empirical science. I started as an inductive mathematics, science and so-called inductive sciences, taken often, a tendency towards pigmentation Dhumic dye deductive, reasoning and induction Weissman, two stages of the development of science, which in turn Mataran by the stage of primary and other final. It seemed to already know that science follow the same paths, and the only degree of excellence provided by the previous ones, or passing Mstdaah to pass successively from the descriptive stage, then the inductive, deductive, and Valokseyoumah.

What is the justification for the division is more traditional big since ancient times, which is in agreement with the institutions that separate mathematics for physics in the general sense; where this term refers to a recent study of nature in all extensions.

Mathematics has formed in the Middle Ages jurisdiction Kmbges preparatory arts colleges, while the physics was taught as part of philosophy at the college level. At the beginning of modern times, and while the raise would physicists Traad relations between Alambgesan Monday, we find that a study of nature at the level of science was to him the other hand, represents the impact of scientific knowledge in the division into two parts or two parts. Of this chapter among the tribal knowledge and a posteriori empirical knowledge corresponds well with the philosophy of rational argument innate ideas and with the radical separation between understanding and sensitivity Almertbtan duality of human nature.

But the tendency empirical same find themselves as if they were embarrassing and upset to admit it; has been divided Hume human knowledge into two parts according to revolve around the relationships between ideas, or about things reality: The laws of the first is uncertain whether intuitively or Berhanaa, and the related per second is potential only. Such bilateral, were at least disturbing for Ombriqi, which attributes this Alombriqi Kmarefna for each source and is the one and only experience. The radical solution was proposed by Mill (John Stuart miles), which sees the issues, not only engineering issues, even issues Alertmitiqa, just the empirical facts. But, instead of opposing feeling and feelings of the athletes strong, and found empirical same Mkadh gradually to follow another path; no math note in the same sense in which Nlsqh other sciences, it is a scientific certainty, and typically, even given the rigidity, accuracy and Iqinatha, but not knowing things, it is the language of a coherent, but it is not indifferent to the direction of reality.

This idea is re-adopted in the present era blatantly, detailed and systematic, logical by the pilot, make the idea of "science fact" in the event of a conflict with "Science Writing"; any logic and mathematics perspective Kanchaouat them with a property to lingual. The pattern of symbolic logic, Carnap wrote: "not a theory and a pattern of signs on certain topics, but it is a language, ie a pattern of marks he occupies himself with the rules." The perception of such calls with some reservations, not only by athletes, "Platonists"; Valksma drawn by the two sets of science than are the formats image purely on the one hand, and interpretations of diagnoses that can be for this division imaginable or unimaginable Mona on the other hand, this also makes sense even in the field or sports than in the field of physics or biology. The building is also Onsagh Khath is possible only for science, which has already Okasmtha, we understand that it will be only the most advanced and sophisticated in the course of Alsourna Alokseyoumah that provide us the best examples of it. "

R. epistemology. Blance

Robert Blance "epistemology"

French university publications 1972

Pp: 63-68.

Each classification, as we said hides hierarchy certain; and classification of Auguste Comte described below is without doubt the best example of this; While claiming that this classification positively and put me in the sense that the editor of all metaphysics, or identical in the same now with the hierarchy of the facts studied by science with the historical development of the latter, it was directed entirely to make the sociology of (social physics) for the coronation and the completion of scientific knowledge.

However, this classification is of also to the rankings many others, the importance of more specific: Vogust formed classify phenomena, and therefore the science that constitute these phenomena subjects, according to different levels, from the simple to the complex, and in a way makes us, when we lower level to a higher level, we find previously unexplained phenomena, in part, will not be left to the flag of the top-level only report of the special relations existing between the phenomena under study. The attempt exciting, although the results for certain cases desperate, they are funny sometimes: It is true, for example, when we move from the level of astronomy to the level of physics, the phenomena are understood in advance in part, physics reproduce the laws of astronomy, and evaluate other of its own, but, can we say that the laws of astronomy is simpler than the laws of physics? ..

The Snavh formed a task from the perspective of the other: it was used as a justification Matodouluggi (and ideological) of the concept of scientific practice that are at the same time a fertile at the level of discoveries, and can be discussed at the level of polarization philosophical: the tendency reductionist or Alarjaaah go further than Auguste Comte himself ; where this school of thought claims that a certain level of phenomena is subject to return fully to the minimum level of it. The Alarjaaah declare themselves more actively in microbiology, with the same strained that do not require absolutely no laws other than the laws of chemistry to explain living systems (and thus a breach of the principles of classification Alkonta).

The classification Alkonta in historical reality, as in the subsequent forms of exploitation, is a whole other category, is not neutral.

5. Classification depending on the complexity of science phenomena studied.

Auguste Comte

"For the classification of natural and positive (modes) of the basic sciences, we must look for the principle of classification during the approach to various phenomena of interest to science to reveal the laws, and we want to make clear is correlation realistic among the various scientific research, as it is not possible to produce this dependence However, the mutual correlation of the corresponding phenomena [this research].

And Bokhzna into account all phenomena negotiable note, and from that point of view this course, we will see that it can be classified in a small number of degrees of natural, arranged in a way to make the study of rationality for each class study based on knowledge of the basic laws of the variety before, and become so based on a study product later. This system and the order specified degree of simplicity or even general phenomena, which produces as a result of simple sequential Taalgaha larger or smaller study (....).

The initial reflection of the total natural phenomena leads us to be divided according to the principle of which we have placed in two categories major key, the first of which includes all the phenomena of raw objects, while the second includes all the phenomena of objects of the Organization (membership).

The latter is indeed more complex, or the privacy of the other, it depends on the previous phenomena that do not depend, on the contrary of that at all, on the first. Hence the need not to study physiological phenomena, but after studying the phenomena of non-organic objects. And makes sure that some of the ways that explain the differences between these two types of objects, we note inside the living bodies of all the phenomena that exist within the objects of crude, whether these phenomena, mechanical or chemical, in addition to a special phenomena of live exclusive; that is, those which are based on the organization ( ....).

Let's turn now to the selection of the basic classification of the pro-tolerated, according to the same rule, each of these two major categories of natural philosophy.

Look first for the physics of inorganic and Btakidna always for a property sheet and dependence in the phenomena, and should be divided into two distinct segments depending on being studied phenomena of the universe, or in particular, those offered by objects ground, where we find physics bodies or astronomy, whether engineering or mechanical, and Geophysics. The necessity of this division, is exactly similar to the previous division.

Given the astronomical phenomena phenomena of more general and simpler and abstract than others, Fbdia it should starts natural philosophy studied; as long as the laws governing the impact on the laws of all other phenomena, which are the same, and vice versa, the separate them substantially; In all the phenomena of physics ground, first note the overall results of cosmic gravity, as well as some other results that are their own, and that is equivalent to the first (....).

And Geophysics in turn fall in Snavh minimum, depending on the same principle, in two very different, depending on whether we consider objects from the point of view of mechanical or chemical point of view, that is where the physics come full sense of the word, and then chemistry. In order to visualize the systematic real, it is assumed prima facie the existence of prior knowledge [science Previous]; because all chemical phenomena are necessarily more complex than physical phenomena, which depend on them without affecting them. Each of us already knew that every chemical reaction is first subject to the influence of gravity and heat and electricity. . . Etc., and shows an increase on that something special, modifies the movement of elements of the former (....).

Displays all of the phenomena of living systems, or two types of phenomena distinct in essence, that is, those of the individual and those related to gender, especially when the subject of the meeting, is this distinction essential and in particular the relationship with man; this type or the last of the phenomena is prima facie more complex and specific than the first, It depends on it without affecting it, and here are two sectors producing two large inside the organic physics: the sense of the word physiology, physics and social organization on the first.

We note first of all social phenomena influence the physiological laws of the individual and, above modifies something special effects, and the impact of individuals on each other, especially in a complex type of human, as a result of the impact of each generation to the next. So it is obvious that it must in order to study social phenomena properly, to proceed first in-depth knowledge of the laws relating to individual life (....).

As a result of this discussion, you find positivism itself is divided naturally into five basic sciences, is determined by variability due to the adoption of mutually necessary and consistent and the founder of the independence of any opinion by default, to a mere comparison depth between the phenomena interview, and those of science are: Astronomy Physics Chemistry Physiology Finally, social physics. "

A-August Comte: Lessons in positivism

The second lesson in the Books selected 1842

Oobie pp. 119-127